fill  if 


' 

^/ 


THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 


THE   FIRST   OIL-WELL. 

Sunk  by  Colonel  Drake,  who,  in  silk  hat.  is  seen  talking  to  his  chief  engineer,  at  Oil  Creek, 
Pennsylvania,  in  1859.  In  the  background  are  "  Old  Billy  Smith  "  and  his  two  sons  who  drilled 
ihe  well. 


i  photograph  taken  in  1859. 


Frontispiece. 


CONQUESTS  OF  SCIENCE 


THE  OIL  CONQUEST 
OF  THE  WORLD 

BY 

FREDERICK    A.    TALBOT 


AUTHOR   OF 


OF   THE   WORLD,"    "MOVING    PICTURES:   HOW  THEY    ARK   MADE 

AND  WORKED,"   "  LIGHTSHIPS   AND  LIGHTHOUSES," 

ETC. 


ILLUSTRATED 


PHILADELPHIA 
J.    B.    LIPPINCOTT    COMPANY 

LONDON:    WILLIAM  HEINEMANN 

MCMXIV 


PRINTED  IN  ENGLAND 


THE   LIBRARY 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 
SANTA   BARBARA 


PREFACE 

PROBABLY  few  of  the  treasures  of  Nature  are  exercising 
such  a  vast  transformation  upon  the  complex  social  and 
industrial  activity  of  the  community  as  oil.  Comparatively 
speaking,  it  is  only  within  the  past  few  years  that  the  signifi- 
cance of  this  material  has  become  realized,  because  it  has 
effected  its  advance  so  silently  and  unostentatiously. 

It  is  safe  to  assert  that  the  average  individual  fails  to 
recognize  how  dependent  we  have  become  upon  this  com- 
modity. It  enters  into  every  phase  of  our  existence. 
Elaborate,  highly  technical  treatises  have  been  written  upon 
the  subject,  which  is  of  exceptional  fascination,  but  they 
are  beyond  the  understanding  of  the  average  reader.  This 
volume  has  been  written  with  the  express  purpose  of  ex- 
tending some  enlightenment,  in  a  popular  manner,  upon  the 
issue ;  to  narrate  the  romance  of  the  huge  industry  which 
has  been  created ;  to  relate  the  many  ramifications  of  its  ap- 
plications; and  to  show  the  many  conquests  it  has  achieved. 
Technical  details  have  been  resolved  into  simple  language. 

I  have  received  considerable  and  valuable  assistance  in 
the  compilation  of  this  work,  for  which  I  am  greatly  in- 
debted. I  owe  my  thanks  particularly  to  Lord  Cowdray 
and  the  officials  of  the  companies  in  which  he  has  an  intimate 


vi  PREFACE 

interest;  the  Standard  Oil  Company;  Mr.  William  F.  Nye; 
the  Oil-Weil  Supply  Company;  the  Pumpherston  Oil  Com- 
pany, Limited;  Messrs.  Otto  Monsted,  Limited;  and  many 
of  those  enterprising  engineers  who  face  the  dangers  of  the 
unknown  and  the  trials  of  the  unexpected  in  the  world-wide 
search  for  oil. 

FREDERICK  A.  TALBOT. 
October,  1914. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  P.AGE 

I.    THE    COMING    OF    OIL             .                                    .  .  .1 

II.    SEARCHING   THE    WORLD    FOR    OIL                  .  ,  17 

HI.    THE   WELL-DRILLER   AND    HIS    TOOLS            .  .  -35 

IV.    THE    "  OIL-BOOMERS  "    AND    OIL    RUSHES  .  .  .48 

V.    TAPPING    AND    DRAWING   THE    OIL                   .  .  .         6l 

VI.    SOME    FAMOUS    BIG   STRIKES              .                  .  .  -74 

VII.    TAKING   CARE    OF   THE    "  CRUDE  "                  .  .  QI 

VIII.    PIPING   THE    PETROLEUM  .....       IO2 

IX.    THE    OIL    REFINERY    AND    ITS    EQUIPMENT  .  .       IIQ 

X.    THE    OIL    REFINERY    AND    ITS   WORK            .  .  .132 

XI.    WHAT   WE   GET   FROM   PETROLEUM                 .  .  .       143 

XII.    OIL   AS    A    ROAD-MAKING    MATERIAL              .  .  .       152 

XIII.    OIL   FIRES    AND    THEIR   EXTINCTION             .  .  .       163 

xiv.  OIL  FROM  SHALES:  A  BRITISH  INDUSTRY  .  .     179 

XV.    NATURAL  GAS    AND    ITS    USES           .                  ,  ,  .194 

XVI.    THE    OIL   INVASION    OF   THE    TABLE  .  .    .  .       208 

XVII.    BUTTER    FROM    OIL                  .                 .                 .  .  .      223 

XVIII.    OILS    FROM    FISH     ......      236 

XIX.    METHODS    OF   DISTRIBUTING    REFINED    OILS  .  .      256 

XX.    THE    COMMERCIAL   USES    OF    OIL    -                  .  .  .      273 

xxi.  THE  WORLD'S  FUTURE  OIL-SUPPLIES       ,-•  .  .     286 

INDEX           .                  .                  .                  .                              -    :v  .      302 


LIST   OF    ILLUSTRATIONS 


FACING   PAGE 

The  First  Oil  Well  .  .  .  .  Frontispiece 

Worshipping  the  Eternal  Fires  ....         6 

Oil  Creek,  Pennsylvania,  as  it  was  in  1859        .  .  .7 

Tools  used  by  Colonel  E.  L.  Drake         .  .  .  .14 

Drake's  Monument  in  Woodlawn  Cemetery     .  .  .14 

Colonel  E.  L.  Drake       ',',,          •  .  .          .  ;,.  .       15 

"  Old  Billy  Smith  "          .  ".  »'  .  ,    ~          •        15 

Hand-dug  Wells  in  Roumania    .  .          ;..:,.         .22 

Burmese  Winning  Oil  from  the  Earth    .  .  v  .  .       22 

The  Mansfield  Oil-Diviner  set  up  for  Prospecting          .  .23 

Dial  of  the  Mansfield  Oil-Diviner  .  .  .  .       23 

Native  Surf  Boats  landing  Supplies        .  .  ,.  .36 

Pumping  Wells  on  the  Seashore  of  Peru         .  ..  .       36 

A  Modern  Oil- Well  Drilling  Plant          .  .  ,  -37 

Inside  the  Derrick  .  .  .  .         ,  .  •  .  .       37 

A  Huge  "  Bit  "  for  a  Russian  Oil- Well  .  .  -42 

Drilling  an  Oil- Well  by  the  Rotary  System        .  .  -43 

General  View  of  a  Rotary  Drilling  Plant  .  .  .46 

Digging  a  "  Sump "  on  a  Trinidad  Oil-Field       .  .  .46 

Drawing  Oil  from  the  Bed  of  the  Sea     .  .  .  -47 

A  Glimpse  of  an  Early  Oil  Boom  in  the  United  States  .       56 

John  Benninghoff  Farm  during  the  Boom  of  1865         .  -57 

The  "  Shooter  "  pouring  a  Charge  of  Nitro-Glycerine    .  .       70 

The  Leinweber  Plant  in  the  Erecting  Shop       .  .  71 

The  Leinweber  System  in  Use    .  .  ,  .  71 

How  Oil  is  drawn  from  the  Earth  in  the  Caucasus        .  .       76 

"  Gassing "  .  .  .  .  .  77 

The  "  Lucas  "  Gusher  in  Full  Blast        .  .  .  .80 

The  Famous  Potrero  de  Llano  No.  4  blowing  through  the  Gate 

Valve  .......       81 

Mexican  Oil- Well  commencing  to  Flow  .  .  .86 

Building  the  Earth  Reservoir  to  receive  Flow  from  Potrero  de 

Llano  No.  4  ......       86 

A  Lake  containing  2,500,000  Barrels  of  Crude  Oil          .  .       87 

The  Gate  Valve  of  Potrero  de  Llano  No.   4  .  .96 

Erecting  a  Storage  Tank  .  .  .  .  .97 

Receiving  End  of  the  First  Pipe-Line,  built  in  1865      .  .     104 


x  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

FACING   PAGE 

Laying  a  Pipe-Line          ...  .  .     105 

A  Modern  American  Pipe-Line  Pumping  Plant  .  .112 

Pumping  Station  on  the  United  States  Pipe-  Line  .  .     113 

Opening  the  Persian  Oil-Field    .          .  ...            .  .  .     113 

Ponds  of  Oil        .             .             ...  .  .     116 

Sand  from  Oil      .             .             .             .            .  .  .116 

A  Row  of  Continuous  Stills  at  Minatitlan           .  .  .     117 

A  Typical  Refinery  for  dealing  with  Paraffin  Products  .  .     122 

A  Horizontal  Crude  Oil  Still      .             .             .  .  .122 

General  View  of  an  American  Petroleum  Refinery  .  .123 

Firing  the  Still     .             .             .             .             .  .  .     136 

"  Agitators "                     .             .             .             .  .  .     137 

The  World-famed  "  Dos  Bocas  "  Ablaze            .  .  .168 

A  Blazing  Petroleum  Well          .             .             .  .  .169 

General  View  of  the  Pumpherston  Shale  Oil  Works  .  .180 

One  of  the  "Hutches  "  for  transporting  the  Shale  .  .181 

A  Bench  of  Retorts         .             .             .             .  .  .184 

The  Atmospheric  Condensers     .             .             .  .  .185 

General  View  of  a  Row  of  Stills  .             .             .  .  .188 

The  Sweating-Houses      .             .             .             .  .  .     1 89 

A  Terrifying  Torch          ......     200 

A  Flaming  Advertisement           .             .             .  .  .201 

Natives  Husking  Coconuts          .             .             .  .  .216 

Removing  the  Kernel,  or  Copra,  from  the  Nut  .  .217 

The  Dairy  where  the  Cream  is  separated  from  the  Milk  .     232 

Blending  the  Oils  for  the  Production  of  Margarine  .  233 

A  School  of  Porpoises  landed  on  the  Beach      .  .  .     246 

Rounding-up  a  School  of  Porpoises         .  .  247 

Hauling  in  the  Seine  and  the  Porpoise  Catch    .  .  .     247 

Water  Transportation  of  Oil  in  1865    .             .  .  .     260 

The  San  Fraterno,  the  largest  Oil-Tanker  afloat  .  .261 

Deck  of  the  San  Fraterno            .                         \          '-• .  .     264 

Pump-Room  of  the  San  Fraterno            .             .  .  .264 

'Tween  Decks  on  the  San  Fraterno         .             .  .  .     265 

Oil-Tanks  of  the  San  Fraterno    .             .    '         .  .  .265 
Engine-Room  of  the  San  Fraterno          ....     268 

How  Mexican  Oils  are  delivered  in  Britain         .  ,  .  .269 

The  Motor  Delivery  of  Cased  Oil  Products         .  .  .     269 

Oil  versus  Coal  for  Steam  Raising  at  Sea             .  ~  .  .276 

Paraffin  Tractor  hauling  a  Combined  Harvester  .  .     277 

Breaking  Virgin  Land  by  the  Aid  of  Oil             .  .  .     277 

Steam  superseded  by  Oil            .             .             ,  .  .284 

Oil  versus  Animal  Haulage  in  Australia              .  .  .285 
A  Corner  of  the  Balachani  Oil-Fields    ....     294 

General  View  of  a  Galician  Oil-Field     .             .  .  -295 


CHAPTER  I 
THE  COMING  OF  OIL 

WHILE  the  nineteenth  century  will  be  known  to  history  as 
the  Coal  Age,  the  twentieth  century  certainly  will  go  down 
to  posterity  as  the  Oil  Era.  Oil  is  becoming  more  and  more 
indispensable  to  our  complex  social  and  industrial  existence; 
in  fact,  it  is  almost  impossible  to  mention  a  phase  of  human 
activity  in  which  it  does  not  play  a  more  or  less  prominent 
part  in  one  form  or  another. 

At  the  same  time,  however,  it  must  not  be  thought  that 
oil  and  its  uses  constitute  a  modern  discovery.  Far  from  it. 
Oil  was  used  for  lighting  and  heating,  if  not  for  power,  long 
before  the  fuel  value  of  coal  was  recognized.  The  earliest 
civilizations  employed  it,  in  an  asphaltic  form,  as  a  cement 
in  their  building  operations.  Two  thousand  years  ago  the 
citizens  of  Agrigentum,  in  Sicily,  used  oil  as  an  illuminant, 
burning  it  in  crudely  fashioned  lamps.  And  does  not  the 
Parable  of  the  Virgins  indicate  that  oil  was  an  acknowledged 
source  of  light  at  the  dawn  of  the  Christian  era  ?  In  some 
countries,  where  it  oozes  from  the  ground  in  the  form  of 
natural  springs,  the  aborigines  have  regarded  it  with  rever- 
ential awe  since  times  immemorial.  Pilgrimages  were  made 
to  the  oil-fires  of  Baku  for  centuries.  The  Red  Men,  long 
before  the  white  man's  invasion  of  North  America,  placed 
implicit  faith  in  the  properties  of  "  Seneca  "oil.  The  tribes 
were  wont  to  gather  at  the  oil-springs,  where  the  medicine- 
man ministered  oil  treatment  for  illness  and  disease,  and  the 
braves  apparently  entertained  high  opinions  concerning  the 
therapeutic  properties  of  this  substance.  Under  these  cir- 
cumstances the  present  movement  may  be  characterized 
rather  as  a  revival,  forced  upon  civilization  to-day  by 
economic  considerations. 

i 


2  THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

In  many  of  the  big  oil-fields  to-day  interesting  and  con- 
trasting illustrations  of  the  primitive  and  the  modern  work- 
ing side  by  side  are  offered.  In  Roumania  the  pyramidal 
derrick  of  the  modern  oil-well  and  the  elaborate  tackle  of 
the  oil-borer,  overshadow  the  crudely  hand-dug  native 
well.  These  latter  are  driven  to  a  depth  of  500  to  600  feet, 
and  the  facilities  employed  are  of  the  most  primitive  de- 
scription. Many  are  worked  upon  "  syndicate  "  lines,  a 
number  of  native  toilers  participating  in  the  sinking  of  the 
well  and  the  raising  of  the  product  to  the  surface,  expenses 
and  profits  being  shared.  In  this  manner  as  many  as  10  tons 
— 3,000  gallons — of  oil  are  raised  daily.  In  the  heart  of  the 
oil  country  of  Farther  India,  the  Burmese  still  "  bail  "oil 
from  shallow  open  workings. 

One  may  wonder  how  such  primitive  methods  possibly 
can  prevail  when  brought  into  violent  competition  with  the 
scientific  rival  alongside.  Nevertheless,  these  crude  work- 
ings are  financially  successful.  The  world's  demand  for  oil 
far  exceeds  the  supply:  the  companies  feeding  the  markets 
with  this  commodity  are  industrious  in  their  efforts  to  collect 
every  gallon  available ;  consequently  the  slender  contributions 
offered  by  the  native  toilers  are  thankfully  received.  The 
Burmese  toils  alone  in  the  primitive  because  to  him  it  is 
profitable  and  enables  him  to  maintain  a  certain  measure 
of  independence ;  he  is  his  own  master.  The  modern  worker 
forthwith  encourages  the  native  because  profit  is  derived 
thereby.  Open  tanks  are  provided  especially  to  receive  the 
oil  obtained  in  this  rude  manner.  The  natives  come  with  their 
vessels  filled  with  oil,  the  quantity  is  checked,  it  is  turned 
into  the  tank,  and  the  toiler  receives  a  voucher  to  the  value 
of  the  volume  delivered,  which  he  is  able  to  convert  into 
cash  or  kind  whenever  he  feels  so  disposed. 

In  Roumania  the  oil  is  run  into  small  earth  reservoirs  or 
ponds,  the  contents  of  which  are  purchased  and  drawn  off 
periodically.  The  primitive  processes  are  highly  lucrative 
to  the  natives  because  they  live  cheaply,  while,  as  they  are 
contributing  to  a  certain  market,  they  are  assured  of  a  living. 

The  term  "  oil"  is  somewhat  vague.     It  includes  all  the 


THE  COMING  OF  OIL  3 

oleaginous  fluids  and  solids  derived  from  the  animal,  vege- 
table, and  mineral  kingdoms,  although,  generally  speaking, 
it  is  admitted  to  apply  essentially  to  that  drawn  from  the 
last-named  source.  For  distinctive  and  commercial  pur- 
poses, oil  extracted  from  the  earth  is  generically  known  as 
"  petroleum."  This  may  be  regarded  as  its  technical 
nomenclature,  because  it  is  marketed  under  many  colloquial 
descriptions,  such  as  rock-oil,  mineral-oil,  coal-oil,  and  so 
on;  but  one  and  all  are  the  same — petroleum. 

Nature  has  been  unusually  lavish  and  indiscriminate  in 
her  distribution  of  this  product,  because  it  is  found  in  nearly 
every  country  from  Alaska  to  the  Antipodes,  if  not  in  one, 
then  in  another  guise.  In  the  crude,  or  raw,  condition  it 
differs  considerably,  being  found  in  fluid,  plastic,  and  solid 
forms.  The  bulk  comes  under  the  first  category;  natural 
pitch  may  be  said  to  represent  the  plastic;  while  the  solid 
representation  is  illustrated  by  ozokerite,  which  is  mined  in 
the  manner  of  coal.  It  is  also  found  in  combination  with 
other  materials,  such  as  shale  or  tar  sands,  and  then  the 
recovery  of  the  essential  article  involves  a  somewhat  elab- 
orate process. 

Possibly  one  of  the  most  novel  and  interesting  forms  in 
which  it  is  found  is  revealed  in  Burmah  and  Java,  although 
similar  conditions  formerly  prevailed  in  the  Baku  region. 
This  is  what  is  familiarly  known  as  the  "  mud  volcano," 
which  is  virtually  a  geyser,  similar  to  those  found  in  New 
Zealand  and  the  Yellowstone  Park,  only  in  this  instance 
salt  water  and  finely  divided  detritus  associated  with  oil 
are  erupted.  They  are  not  volcanoes  in  the  strict  sense  of 
the  word,  being  in  reality  oil-gas  springs,  and  are  encoun- 
tered for  the  most  part  in  the  jungle.  Here  and  there  the 
dense  bush  will  be  found  to  be  relieved  by  a  large  patch  of 
absolutely  sterile  barren  soil,  in  the  centre  of  which  spas- 
modic agitation  is  observable.  Suddenly  a  mound  or  dome 
of  earth  is  forced  a  few  feet  into  the  air,  to  burst  with  a 
report.  The  explosion  shivers  the  mound,  from  the  cracks 
and  crevices  of  which  clouds  of  steam  issue.  The  earth 
subsides,  and  all  is  quiet  for  a  few  seconds,  when  another 


4  THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

outbreak  occurs.  The  collapse  of  the  mound  is  always 
attended  with  the  dispersion  of  fumes  reeking  of  petroleum, 
which  plainly  indicates  the  agitation  to  be  due  to  the  sub- 
terranean pressure  of  petroleum  gases. 

The  explanation  of  this  phenomenon  is  simple.  The 
stratum  of  limestone  covering  and  sealing  the  oil  deposits 
has  become  broken  and  disrupted  at  places.  The  natural 
gas  finds  a  means  of  escape  through  these  fissures,  and  draws 
the  oil  with  it.  The  oil,  moving  slowly,  mixes  with  the  soft 
soil  immediately  above  the  limestone  seal,  and  forms  a  kind 
of  slime.  The  gas  pressure  below  increases,  until  finally  it 
attains  a  sufficient  degree  to  force  this  slime  to  the  surface, 
the  emission  being  in  the  form  of  a  big  bubble.  When  these 
volcanoes  first  .burst  into  activity  eruptions  take  place  at 
intervals  of  a  few  seconds,  but  as  the  volume  of  escaping  oil 
increases,  and  forms  a  thicker  skin  of  slime  upon  the  lime- 
stone formation,  the  escaping  gases  are  confronted  with  a 
more  difficult  task,  especially  as  the  oil-saturated  detritus 
ejected  to  the  surface  oxidizes  from  exposure  to  the  air  and 
becomes  harder.  Consequently  the  periods  between  suc- 
cessive discharges  steadily  lengthen,  until  at  last  the  gas 
pressure  becomes  insufficient  to  effect  an  escape.  The 
oxidized  oil-mud  on  the  surface  and  the  slime  below  form  a 
seal  over  the  fissures  in  the  limestone,  effectively  bottling 
the  oil  and  gas  below. 

At  times  the  natural  gas,  finding  a  suitable  outlet  through 
the  rock  near  the  geyser,  comes  to  the  surface,  becomes 
ignited,  and  burns  continuously.  This  is  the  "  eternal  fire 
of  Demak,"  which  is  regarded  by  the  natives  with  super- 
stitious awe.  The  territory  in  which  this  eruptive  phenom- 
enon occurs  is  at  the  heart  of  the  famous  Javanese  oil-fields. 
In  fact,  it  was  observation  of  the  action  of  the  mud- volcanoes 
and  of  the  strong  odour  of  the  petroleum  accompanying  the 
eruptions,  which  prompted  the  first  borings  for  oil,  and 
served  to  reveal  one  of  the  richest  deposits  of  high-grade 
petroleum  in  the  world. 

The  fluid  oil,  being  the  most  abundant,  has  attracted  the 
greatest  measure  of  attention  and  capital.  Petroleum  is 


THE  COMING  OF  OIL  5 

found  in  plenty  among  rugged  mountains,  dense  forests, 
sterile  deserts,  under  the  sea,  and,  if  the  "  wild  catter  "  is 
to  be  believed,  is  even  obtainable  from  the  ocean  and  the 
air  above.  New  sources  of  supply  are  being  revealed  every 
day  in  response  to  the  world's  one  insistent  cry — oil,  oil, 
oil !  This  plea  is  so  penetrating  that  the  uttermost  parts 
of  the  earth  are  being  ransacked  and  probed  diligently  for 
oil-beds. 

Some  countries,  however,  have  been  better  favoured  by 
Nature  than  others.  Investigations  in  the  British  Isles 
have  proved  abortive.  Although  these  islands  possess 
immense  beds  of  coal,  oil  is  conspicuous  by  its  absence. 
Small  quantities  have  been  discovered  here  and  there  when 
hewing  coal  and  sinking  water-wells,  but  the  probable 
extent  and  volume  of  the  oil-bearing  strata  are  so  insignifi- 
cant as  to  render  comprehensive  boring  operations  wildly 
speculative,  and  certainly  void  of  any  attractive  financial 
results.  Natural  gas — that  is,  gas  composed  of  the  volatile 
constituents  of  petroleum — has  been  tapped  here  and  there, 
and  in  Sussex  is  turned  to  commercial  account  upon  a  limited 
scale.  The  existence  of  this  gas  instantly  provoked  the 
contention  that  oil  must  exist  in  South-Eastern  England, 
but  so  far  it  has  not  been  found.  I  have  seen  one  sample  of 
oil  which  was  obtained  in  the  North  of  England,  and  it 
looks  promising.  It  was  drawn  from  the  sea-bed.  This 
discovery  created  a  wave  of  excitement,  but  expert  opinion 
was  so  deadly  opposed  to  further  development  that  nothing 
has  been  done.  The  sample  is  merely  a  curiosity.  Britain's 
oil  resources  are  confined  to  the  deposits  of  shale  in  Scotland, 
the  exploitation  of  which  is  being  conducted  upon  a  com- 
prehensive scale,  but  the  yield  is  insignificant  in  comparison 
with  the  output  of  other  countries. 

The  United  States  of  America,  and  indeed  the  whole 
American  continent,  reeks  with  petroleum.  The  Appala- 
chians and  California  constitute  the  richest  producing 
centres  at  the  moment ;  but  the  supremacy  of  these  territories 
is  being  assailed  seriously  by  the  discoveries  which  have 
been  made  in  Kansas,  Texas,  and  Oklahoma.  Canada,  so 


6  THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

far,  has  not  proved  a  very  remunerative  field,  although  it  is 
generally  believed  that  the  United  States  beds  extend  into 
that  country.  During  the  past  few  years  Mexico  has  created 
a  sensation  as  an  oil-producing  country,  mainly  through  the 
endeavours  of  Lord  Cowdray,  while  South  America  gives 
promising  indications  of  swelling  the  markets  with  this 
commodity  to  a  pronounced  degree. 

In  Europe  the  oil-beds  are  probably  richer  and  more 
extensive  than  in  America.  The  territory  fringing  the 
Caspian  Sea,  more  particularly  upon  its  eastern  side,  is  a 
colossal  subterranean  oil  reservoir,  rivalling  even  the  richest 
stretches  of  the  United  States.  Roumania  and  Galicia  are 
two  other  immense  petroleum  fields.  Russia,  with  the 
exception  of  the  Caucasus,  has  not  been  submitted  to  search- 
ing investigation,  but  it  is  generally  considered  by  competent 
authorities  to  possess  petroleum  resources,  at  present  lying 
dormant,  which  exceed  in  value  any  other  mineral  wealth 
of  that  mighty  empire.  Italy,  Spain,  France,  Germany,  and 
Scandinavia,  like  Great  Britain,  appear  to  have  been  neg- 
lected by  Nature  when  this  commodity  was  bestowed,  there 
being  no  known  petroleum  territories. 

So  far  Africa  has  not  entered  the  lists  of  oil-yielding 
countries  to  a  serious  degree,  but  this  result  is  probably  due 
to  the  difficulties  of  transport  which  handicap  surveying 
and  experimental  borings.  The  west  coast  gives  promising 
evidences  of  petroleum  deposits,  and  one  or  two  fields  are 
in  operation.  South  Africa  has  proved  exceptionally  dis- 
appointing. Hopes  were  raised  from  one  or  two  slight 
indications  that  oil  existed  in  abundance,  but  castles  in  the 
air  have  been  rudely  shattered  by  expert  investigation. 
It  is  a  moot  point  whether  South  Africa  possesses  so  much 
oil  as  the  British  Isles !  Some  shales  have  been  found  in 
Natal,  but  at  the  moment  it  is  doubtful  whether  they  will 
pay  to  exploit.  The  most  promising  yields  have  been 
obtained  in  the  most  unexpected  spot — beneath  the  Egyp- 
tian desert  near  the  sweltering  coast-line  of  the  Red  Sea. 
Should  this  discovery  materialize,  it  will  be  of  far-reaching 
import,  inasmuch  as  Egypt  and  the  Soudan  at  present 


By  courtesy  of  the  Oil  U'ell  Supply  Company. 
WORSHIPPING   THE    ETERNAL    FIRES. 
Temple  at  Baku  to  which  Mahommedans  have  made  pilgrimages  since  times  immemorial. 


To  face  page  6. 


THE  COMING  OF  OIL  7 

suffer  from  the  absence  of  native  fuel  supplies.  The  country 
will  be  able  to  absorb  every  ounce  of  petroleum  which  it 
may  produce  for  many  years  to  come.  Indeed,  the  availa- 
bility of  a  first-class  fuel  on  the  spot  will  give  an  incentive 
to  industrial  development  which  at  present  is  impossible. 

Asia  possesses  enormous  oil  resources.  Trial  borings  in 
Mesopotamia  have  proved  promising,  while  troublous  Persia 
contains  untold  oil  wealth.  The  largest  oil-fields  known  at 
the  moment  are  those  of  Burmah  and  the  Dutch  Indies 
including  Borneo.  The  Chinese  Empire,  which  has  been 
closed  to  development  until  recent  years,  is  an  unknown 
quantity  in  this  connection.  It  is  generally  believed  to 
possess  immense  oil-beds,  but  this  is  merely  conjecture. 
The  Standard  Oil  Company,  having  entrenched  itself  in  the 
country  and  having  received  valuable  concessions,  has  laid 
its  plans  with  its  characteristic  enterprise  and  energy  to 
satisfy  itself  upon  the  point,  while  British  interests  are 
equally  active  in  a  similar  direction. 

The  Australasian  continent  has  not  been  neglected,  but 
the  prospectors  have  failed  to  reap  attractive  fruits  from 
their  labours.  Australia's  oil  resources,  at  all  events  so  far 
as  the  settled  and  explored  regions  are  concerned,  appear 
to  be  concentrated  in  shales,  although  petroleum  wells  have 
been  sunk  and  are  being  worked  upon  a  limited  scale  in 
Tasmania  and  New  Zealand.  Wresting  the  oil  content  from 
shales  is  not  a  process  to  be  undertaken  lightly.  The  Scottish 
deposits  are  remunerative  because  they  are  worked  scien- 
tifically and  upon  well-accepted  commercial  lines.  The 
majority  of  other  shale-fields  have  proved  little  else  than 
financial  sinks,  owing  to  the  lack  of  knowledge  and  absence 
of  commercial  acumen  in  their  operation. 

While  petroleum  is  a  natural  product,  it  is  not  a  definite 
chemical  compound.  It  is  a  mixture  of  a  series  of  hydro- 
carbons— combinations  of  hydrogen  with  carbon — the 
number  of  the  members  composing  which,  as  well  as  their 
respective  proportions,  vary  according  to  the  district  in 
which  the  substance  is  found.  These  variations  cause  the 
crude  oil  to  differ  very  considerably  in  its  general  charac- 


8  THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

teristics,  and  also  affects  the  yield  and  number  of  various 
articles  derived  therefrom.  Thus  the  petroleum  obtained 
from  California,  Texas,  Russia,  and  Mexico  is  dense,  heavy, 
and  viscous,  while  that  obtained  from  Pennsylvania,  Kansas, 
Roumania,  Burmah,  and  the  Dutch  East  Indies  is  lighter 
and  far  more  fluid.  In  appearance  and  colour  there  is  also 
great  variety,  according  to  the  district  of  origin.  One  will 
be  of  the  consistency  of  thick,  sluggishly-flowing  treacle, 
densely  blackish  in  colour,  and  will  emit  a  pungent  aroma. 
Another  will  have  a  lightish  grey,  amber,  or  light  greenish 
hue,  will  run  almost  as  freely  as  water,  and  be  practically 
odourless.  Oil  from  one  district  will  be  eminently  suited 
to  illuminating  purposes,  while  that  from  another  will  be 
rich  in  lubricating  constituents.  The  Roumanian,  Dutch 
East  Indian,  and  Pennsylvanian  petroleums  under  refining 
yield  large  quantities  of  naphthas,  of  which  petrol  or  gasoline 
is  probably  the  best  known.  But  the  Texas,  Russian,  and 
some  of  the  Mexican  petroleum  is  indifferently  fitted  for  the 
yield  of  such  a  valuable  product,  but  forms  a  first-class 
liquid  fuel  for  firing  locomotives,  steamship  boilers,  and 
so  on. 

Under  these  circumstances  it  has  been  necessary  in  the 
interests  of  commerce  to  establish  a  system  of  grading 
petroleums.  This  was  not  a  simple  task,  inasmuch  as  a 
scientific  graduation  would  have  fallen  short  of  requirements 
and  would  have  contributed  to  trading  confusion.  The 
urgency  for  simplification  brought  about  quite  a  different 
method  of  grading  the  oil.  Instead  of  regarding  oil  drawn 
from  the  earth  as  petroleum  purely  and  simply,  irrespective 
of  district  of  origin,  those  from  different  localities  are 
assumed  to  be  individual  products.  Classification  is  carried 
out  according  to  the  predominating  or  characteristic  basic 
constituent,  and  these  comprise  two  broad  groups.  For 
instance,  the  light  oils,  such  as  come  from  Pennsylvania, 
Roumania,  and  so  on,  which  are  rich  in  paraffins,  are  said 
to  have  a  paraffin  base,  and  are  known  as  paraffin  oils. 
On  the  other  hand,  Mexican,  Californian,  and  Russian  oils 
have  an  asphalt  base,  and  in  the  same  way  are  described  as 


THE  COMING  OF  OIL  9 

asphaltic  oils.  But  it  happens  sometimes  that  a  particular 
petroleum  has  some  other  predominating  characteristic, 
such  as  sulphur.  Then  it  is  described  as  a  sulphur  oil. 
The  characteristic  constituent  provides  the  index  for  grada- 
tion or  classification. 

Petroleum  is  found  at  varying  depths.  In  some  places  it 
will  be  struck  in  large  quantities  comparatively  near  the 
surface  of  the  earth;  in  others  it  is  necessary  to  bore  to 
3,000  and  4,000  feet  or  more.  The  popular  impression  is 
that  oil  occupies  immense  cavities  in  the  crust  of  the  earth, 
forming  huge  lakes  resembling  the  subterranean  stretches  of 
water  about  which  one  reads  occasionally.  This  is  a  mis- 
taken impression.  Oil  is  found  associated  with  sand,  the 
latter  acting  somewhat  in  the  manner  of  a  sponge.  The 
sand  fills  the  cavity,  and  is  saturated  with  the  oil.  Perhaps 
a  better  idea  of  the  composition  of  the  oil  layer  in  the  earth's 
crust  may  be  gathered  by  taking  a  tumbler  and  filling  it 
with  small  shot;  then,  after  the  glass  has  been  so  charged,  to 
pour  in  water  until  it  rises  to  the  brim.  One  will  be  aston- 
ished at  the  quantity  of  water  which  a  glass  apparently 
occupied  entirely  by  the  shot  will  contain,  the  reason  being 
that  the  water  occupies  all  the  interstices  between  the  beads 
of  lead.  If  one  withdraws  the  water,  leaving  the  shot 
behind,  the  glass  apparently  is  still  full.  In  the  oil  strata 
the  grains  of  sand  do  not  occupy  the  entire  cavity :  the  oil 
occupies  the  spaces  between  them. 

The  construction  of  the  earth's  crust  for  the  most  part 
follows  well-defined  lines.  The  strata  are  distinct,  but  they 
do  not  extend  in  a  perfectly  horizontal  direction.  Instead 
they  have  an  undulating  formation,  the  lower  parts  of 
depressions  being  known  as  "  anticlines,"  and  the  humps,  or 
elevated  portions,  as  "  synclines."  Now,  one  would  naturally 
think  that  the  oil,  being  a  fluid,  would  collect  in  the  de- 
pressions. But,  for  the  most  part,  this  is  not  so.  It  gathers 
upon  the  crests  of  the  humps,  or  synclines.  A  little  reflec- 
tion will  reveal  why  this  is  so.  Oil  is  a  comparatively  light 
fluid;  it  will  float  on  water.  The  latter,  gravitating,  finds 
its  way  to  the  depressions,  and  occupies  all  the  available 


io  THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

spaces.  Consequently,  the  oil  is  forced  to  the  upper  levels; 
hence  its  position  upon  the  humps. 

Unfortunately,  however,  the  formation  of  the  earth's 
crust  is  not  regular.  The  rhythmic  undulations  have  been 
upset  by  volcanic  action.  Consequently,  the  geological 
character  of  the  country  in  which  oil  is  being  sought  must 
be  borne  in  mind.  For  instance,  in  California,  the  move- 
ment of  the  earth's  system,  which  brought  about  the  forma- 
tion of  the  towering  Sierras,  disturbed  the  oil-beds  very 
seriously.  The  wavy  layers  running  horizontally  suffered 
disruption  and  upheaval.  In  places  the  strata  have  been 
set  actually  on  end,  with  the  result  that  the  oil  occupies  a 
vertical  cavity.  In  the  Caucasus,  where  volcanic  energy 
has  been  exceedingly  violent,  the  disturbance  has  had  a 
different  effect.  The  strata  containing  the  oil  appear  to 
have  been  pushed  to  one  side  and  superimposed,  with  the 
result  that  there  are  successive  layers  of  oil-yielding  sands. 

Generally  speaking,  oil  never  is  found  in  districts  where 
there  has  been  excessive  volcanic  disturbance.  This  is  due 
to  the  fact  that  at  these  points  the  upheaval  of  the  crust 
has  been  so  terrific,  and  such  enormous  pressures  have  been 
exerted,  that  the  oil-sands  have  been  expelled  or  else  have 
been  burned  up.  For  this  reason  oil  has  not  yet  been 
found  among  the  Swiss  Alps,  nor  among  the  Rockies.  Like- 
wise it  is  not  apparent  in  the  British  Isles,  which  owe  their 
existence  primarily  to  volcanic  activity.  This  action  has 
produced  some  very  curious  results.  As  is  well  known,  the 
Andes  range  thrusts  itself  towards  the  clouds  near  the 
western  shore  of  South  America.  The  mountain  flanks  are 
exceedingly  abrupt.  No  oil  has  been  discovered  in  the 
range  itself ,'  but  upon  the  level  shore  it  is  found  in  abund- 
ance, and  is  being  profitably  worked.  The  same  phenom- 
enon occurs  in  California,  where  the  Sierras  have  produced 
a  similar  effect.  One  or  two  trial  wells  were  put  down 
above  high- water  mark.  Oil  was  tapped,  and  flowed  forth 
in  copious  streams.  A  survey  of  the  situation  was  then 
made.  Did  the  deposits  run  out  to  sea  ?  Everything 
pointed  towards  such  a  conclusion.  Accordingly,  derricks 


THE  COMING  OF  OIL  11 

were  erected  in  the  water,  where  drilling  met  with  complete 
success,  the  oil  being  more  abundant  than  on  shore.  The 
inevitable  boom  set  in,  and  to-day  clusters  of  derricks 
protrude  above  the  water,  connected  by  plank  gangways  with 
the  shore,  and  winning  oil  from  the  sea-bed  flourishes. 
Depth  of  water  alone  will  restrict  the  enterprise  proceeding 
seawards,  but  there  is  every  indication  that  the  deposits 
extend  some  distance  beneath  the  Pacific.  Fortunately 
this  coast  is  free  from  attack  by  tempest,  otherwise  wind 
and  wave  would  make  short  work  of  the  timber  oil  structures. 
In  the  Caspian  territory  there  are  similar  evidences  that  the 
oil  strata  extend  beneath  the  Caspian  Sea,  but  no  effort 
has  been  made  to  tap  them  upon  lines  similar  to  those 
practised  in  the  United  States.  In  Russia  the  proposal  is 
to  reclaim  sections  of  the  foreshore  beneath  which  oil  is 
known  to  exist,  and  then  to  tap  the  oil  from  a  dry  position. 
Coal  and  tin  are  mined  from  the  sea-bed,  but  the  Californian 
undertaking  represents  the  solitary  effort  that  has  been 
made  to  make  the  sea  give  up  the  oil  wealth  which  it  covers. 
The  mammoth  oil  industry  of  to-day  owes  its  existence 
primarily  to  a  British  chemist,  Mr.  James  Young,  who  was 
the  first  man  to  produce  illuminating  oil  from  crude  petro- 
leum. Young  was  apprenticed  to  his  father,  a  humble 
cabinet-maker  in  Glasgow,  but  the  boy  devoted  his  evenings 
and  spare  time  to  the  mastery  of  chemistry.  In  this  he 
proved  so  brilliantly  successful  that  he  was  appointed 
assistant  to  Professor  Graham,  and  subsequently  abandoned 
working  in  wood  for  the  position  of  industrial  chemist  in 
Manchester.  While  there  Lord  Playfair  drew  his  attention 
to  a  thick,  viscous,  liquid  matter  which  was  oozing  into  a 
coal-mine  at  Alfreton  in  Derbyshire.  Investigating  the 
material,  Young  found  that  it  was  crude  petroleum,  and, 
succeeding  in  distilling  paraffin  therefrom,  he  left  Man- 
chester, erected  a  small  refinery  near  the  mine,  and  devoted 
his  energies  to  the  production  of  the  illuminating  oil,  which 
in  those  days  was  regarded  as  the  solitary  useful  product 
of  mineral  oil.  When  Young  commenced  operations  the 
spring  was  giving  about  300  gallons  of  oil  per  day,  but  the 


12  THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

yield  diminished  steadily,  until  at  the  end  of  two  years  it 
gave  out  completely.  Young  had  anticipated  such  a  con- 
tingency, and  had  made  arrangements  accordingly.  This 
period  of  activity  had  proved  sufficient  to  enable  him  to 
perfect  his  great  idea.  In  1850  he  took  out  his  famous  patent 
for  the  production  of  paraffin  by  distillation,  which  has 
proved  to  be  one  of  the  most  historic  and  momentous 
developments  associated  with  the  oil  industry. 

Young's  success  had  not  escaped  the  attention  of  certain 
interests  in  the  United  States  of  America.  The  remains  of 
the  ancient  oil- workings  and  natural  oil-springs  were  accepted 
as  conclusive  evidence  that  oil  existed  in  plenty  in  the 
earth.  Its  extraction  could  be  converted  into  an  attractive 
commercial  proposition.  The  patent  taken  out  by  Young 
represented  a  triumph  in  refining,  and  as  there  was  great 
scope  for  an  illuminating  oil  to  supersede  the  rush  light, 
the  Pennsylvania  Rock-Oil  Company  came  into  being  in 
1854,  to  smk  wells  for  oil  and  to  refine  the  product.  For  two 
or  three  years  the  proposal  languished,  but  in  1859  opera- 
tions were  commenced  in  grim  earnest  under  Colonel  Drake. 

He  selected  a  spot  on  Oil  Creek,  Pennsylvania,  which  in 
those  days  was  a  picturesque  sylvan  dale,  through  which 
the  stream  wound  its  tortuous  way.  The  hills  rising  gradu- 
ally from  the  depression  were  densely  clothed  with  scrub 
and  forest,  relieved  here  and  there  by  patches  of  pasture- 
land,  where  the  grasses  grew  luxuriantly.  Drake  drove  his 
well  in  the  floor  of  the  vale,  and  essayed  to  tap  the  oil  upon 
the  lines  generally  practised  in  sinking  an  open  water- well. 
He  commenced  operations  on  May  20,  1859.  He  had  not 
descended  more  than  a  few  feet,  when  an  inrush  of  water 
and  mud,  filling  his  excavation,  brought  about  a  sudden 
cessation  of  work. 

A  pretty  problem  for  those  days  was  presented.  Drake 
strove  might  and  main  to  overcome  the  visitation,  but  in 
vain ;  thereupon  he  decided  to  drive  a  pipe  into  the  ground 
until  he  touched  solid  rock.  The  actual  drilling  operations 
were  carried  out  by  William,  familiarly  known  as  "  Old 
Billy  "  Smith,  who  was  assisted  by  his  sons.  Drake  super- 


THE  COMING  OF  OIL  13 

vised  the  task,  bringing  his  knowledge  to  bear  upon  the 
solution  of  the  troubles  as  they  developed,  and  successfully 
breaking  them  down  one  after  the  other.  It  was  pioneer 
work  from  beginning  to  end,  and  in  the  manner  of  such 
operations  the  troubles  at  times  were  of  no  mean  description, 
while  the  tools,  primitive  in  comparison  with  those  used  to- 
day, had  to  be  contrived  specially  to  meet  the  situation. 

But  perseverance  brought  its  due  reward.  On  August  27, 
1859,  when  the  drill-pipe  had  been  carried  to  a  depth  of 
69^  feet,  petroleum  was  observed  to  be  welling  to  the  mouth 
of  the  bore-hole ;  the  flow  increased  slowly  as  the  bit  shattered 
the  remaining  thickness  of  rock.  Drake  and  his  diligent 
toilers  realized  that  the  goal  of  their  ambitions  had  been 
reached.  Oil  had  been  struck  \  The  yield  was  not  impos- 
ing, judging  from  modern  standards,  being  only  twenty 
barrels — 840  gallons — per  day,  which  output  was  maintained 
for  a  year. 

The  news  of  Drake's  success  spread  rapidly,  and  there 
was  a  tremendous  wave  of  excitement.  Curiously  enough, 
Colonel  Drake  appears  to  have  underrated  the  significance 
of  his  discovery  and  its  importance  to  the  world  at  large. 
He  was  completely  satisfied  with  what  he  had  accomplished. 
He  had  undertaken  a  certain  task  and  had  completed  it. 
Forthwith  his  interest  in  petroleum  appears  to  have  dis- 
appeared; he  never  became  an  oil-king,  nor  a  millionaire. 
Just  when  Fortune  was  within  his  grasp  he  retired  from  the 
new  world  which  he  had  opened  up,  to  devote  his  attention 
and  interests  to  more  congenial  occupation.  In  his  later 
days,  while  he  never  regretted  the  loss  of  the  wealth  which 
should  have  been  his,  he  was  sometimes  in  sore  need  of  the 
bare  necessaries  of  life.  Illness  overtook  him,  and  he  died 
practically  unknown,  with  few  to  sound  his  praises  for 
creating  a  new  industry. 

Within  a  few  months  of  Drake's  momentous  discovery  a 
mad  rush  set  in  to  the  spot  where  he  had  found  oil.  Pros- 
pectors, adventurers,  ne'er-do-wells,  and  financiers,  flocked 
to  Oil  Creek  as  frenziedly  as  if  a  gold-mine  had  been  revealed. 
The  placidity  of  the  Pennsylvania  countryside  was  rudely 


i4  THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

disturbed;  its  picturesque  sylvan  beauty  was  destroyed 
ruthlessly.  The  country  for  miles  around  was  overrun  in 
all  directions,  and  the  land,  which  had  hitherto  been  deemed 
of  little  value  except  for  the  quiet  humdrum  of  agricultural 
pursuits,  resounded  with  the  staccato  clank  of  axes  felling 
trees,  the  resounding  crashes  of  hammers  striking  nails,  the 
raucous  shouts  of  the  uncouth  who  had  contracted  the  get- 
rich-quickly  fever,  and  the  wild  screech  of  steam. 

The  vale  fringing  the  stream  beside  which  oil  had  been 
found  was  promptly  christened  Oil  Creek;  towns  of  curious 
and  fantastic  names,  suggested  by  some  incident  associated 
with  the  oil  rush,  came  into  existence.  There  were  Petro- 
leum Centre,  Bonanza  Flats,  Church  Run,  Funkville,  Red 
Hot,  Pithole,  Cow  Run,  Wild  Cat  Hollow,  to  name  only  a 
few  of  the  places  which  sprang  into  bustling  activity.  To- 
day many  of  these  spots  are  but  a  memory  of  the  strenuous 
oil  days  of  '59. 

Such  was  the  beginning  of  the  oil  boom  which  prevails 
to  this  day.  Drake's  discovery,  combined  with  Young's 
invention  for  distilling  paraffin  from  crude  oil,  changed  the 
whole  outlook  of  the  world ;  then  followed  another  important 
improvement,  though  it  was  a  mere  detail.  The  paraffin  of 
the  early  days  was  burned  in  open  lamps  and  naturally  only 
gave  an  indifferent  light  under  such  conditions,  while  it 
emitted  considerable  smoke.  This  defect  prompted  an  in- 
ventor, Samuel  Kier,  a  merchant  of  Pittsburg,  who  was 
interested  in  the  disposal  of  the  product,  to  search  for  some 
means  to  improve  the  light.  He  devised  a  burner  to  which 
a  movable  glass  chimney  could  be  attached.  The  paraffin 
lamp  was  changed  instantly  and  completely.  Instead  of 
giving  a  faint  glimmer  accompanied  by  nauseating  black 
smoke,  a  brilliant,  smokeless,  and  steady  light  was  produced. 
The  doom  of  the  rush  light  as  an  illuminating  agent  was 
sealed,  and  a  tremendous  fillip  was  imparted  to  the  young 
paraffin-oil  industry. 

There  is  one  place  which,  born  of  the  '59  rush,  has  sur- 
vived the  successive  oil  boom  and  vicissitudes  of  the  Penn- 
sylvania oil  industry;  this  is  Titusville,  which  stands  near 


TOOLS    USED    BY   COLONEL    E.    L.    DRAKE    IX    SINKING   THE    FIRST 
PETROLEUM    WELL. 


TO   THE    MEMORY   OF   THE    MAX   WHO    MADE   THE    PETROLEUM    IXDUSTRY. 

Drake's  monument  in  Woodlawn  Cemetery,  Titusville,  Pa.     Erected  by  H.  H.  Rogers 
at  a  cost  of  895,000  (.£19,000). 

To  face  page  14. 


%       c 
K     'c 

a     s 


THE  COMING  OF  OIL  15 

the  spot  where  Drake  drove  his  well.  Titusville  is  the  Mecca 
of  the  oil  world,  because  many  of  the  greatest  developments 
connected  with  the  earliest  days,  happened  in  this  district. 
The  first  big  flowing  well  was  tapped  near  by.  It  gave  a 
yield  of  200  barrels  per  twenty-four  hours — ten  times  the 
output  of  the  Drake  well — which  for  those  times  was  con- 
sidered a  sensation.  Subsequently  another  equally  start- 
ling discovery  was  made.  Petroleum,  or,  as  it  is  called, 
"  natural,"  gas,  was  struck  in  the  Newton  well,  and  thus 
another  commodity  was  brought  within  the  reach  of  an 
expectant  world. 

Drake's  momentous  discovery  is  perpetuated  to-day  by 
a  Drake  Museum,  which  is  one  of  the  "  sights  "  of  Titus- 
ville, and  by  the  magnificent  monument  which  has  been 
erected  to  his  memory  in  the  Woodlawn  Cemetery.  It  is 
fitting  that  this  memorial,  which  cost  $95,000  (£19,000), 
should  have  been  erected  by  one  who  made  millions  out  of 
petroleum,  and  who  was  always  an  admirer  of  Drake  and 
his  work.  This  was  H.  H.  Rogers,  a  colleague  of  the  Rocke- 
feller brothers,  and  one  of  the  creators  of  the  Standard  Oil 
Company,  the  richest  and  most  powerful  commercial  or- 
ganization in  the  world. 

The  epitaph  is  terse.  Upon  the  six  panels  are  inscribed 
the  following : 

COL.  K.  L.  DRAKE  :  BORN  AT  GREENVILLE,  N.Y., 
MARCH  29,  MDCCCIX.;  DIED  AT  BETHLEHEM,  PA., 
NOV.  8,  MDCCCLXXX.  FOUNDER  OF  THE  PETROLEUM 
INDUSTRY.  THE  FRIEND  OF  MAN. 

CALLED  BY  CIRCUMSTANCES  TO  THE  SOLUTION  OF  A 
GREAT  MINING  PROBLEM,  HE  TRIUMPHANTLY  VINDI- 
CATED AMERICAN  SKILL,  AND  NEAR  THIS  SPOT  LAID 
THE  FOUNDATION  OF  AN  INDUSTRY. 

THAT  HAS  ENRICHED  THE  STATE,  BENEFITED  MAN- 
KIND, STIMULATED  MECHANIC  ARTS,  ENLARGED  THE 
PHARMACOPOEIA,  AND  HAS  ATTAINED  WORLD-WIDE 
PROPORTIONS. 

HE  SOUGHT  FOR  HIMSELF  NOT  WEALTH,  NOT  SOCIAL 
DISTINCTION ;  CONTENT  TO  LET  OTHERS  FOLLOW  WHERE 
HE  LED.  AT  THE  THRESHOLD  OF  HIS  FAME  HE  RETIRED, 
TO  END  HIS  DAYS  IN  QUIETER  PURSUITS. 


16  THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

HIS  HIGHEST  AMBITION  WAS  THE  SUCCESSFUL  AC- 
COMPLISHMENT OF  HIS  TASK.  HIS  NOTABLE  VICTORY 
THE  CONQUEST  OF  THE  ROCK.  BEQUEATHING  TO  POS- 
TERITY THE  FRUITS  OF  HIS  LABOUR  AND  OF  HIS  IN- 
DUSTRY. 

HIS  LAST  DAYS,  OPPRESSED  BY  ILL,  TO  WANT  NO 
STRANGER.  HE  DIED  IN  COMPARATIVE  OBSCURITY. 
THIS  MONUMENT  IS  ERECTED  IN  GRATEFUL  RECOGNITION 
AND  REMEMBRANCE,  AT  WOODLAWN  CEMETERY,  TITUS- 
VILLE,  PA.  DEDICATED  OCT.  4,  igOI,  AND  FINISHED 
SEPT.  4,  1902. 

But  Drake  has  a  more  enduring  monument  than  that 
wrought  in  stone ;  owing  to  the  success  which  had  attended  the 
plant  he  used,  it  became  adopted  as  the  standard,  and  in 
its  fundamental  characteristics  is  practised  to  this  day.  The 
truncated  pyramidal  tower,  built  of  wood  or  other  suitable 
materials,  is  a  familiar  sight  throughout  the  world  where  oil 
is  being  wrested  from  the  earth,  recalling  vividly  the  struggles 
and  indomitable  perseverance  of  one  of  America's  illustrious 
sons,  in  his  endeavour  to  benefit  humanity  and  to  expand 
the  commerce  of  the  world. 


CHAPTER  II 
SEARCHING  THE  WORLD  FOR  OIL 

FIFTY — even  fifteen — years  ago  it  was  the  discovery  of  a 
new  gold,  diamond,  or  silver  field  which  set  the  world  agog, 
sent  a  throb  of  excitement  round  the  globe,  and  precipitated 
frenzied  rushes  of  hare-brained  fortune-seekers.  The  stam- 
pedes to  California,  Coolgardie,  the  Rand,  Kimberley,  and 
the  Klondike  are  vivid  memories  still ;  but  to-day  it  is  not 
the  "  find  "  of  metal  which  fires  the  imagination  and  deter- 
mination of  the  get-rich-quickly,  so  much  as  a  "  strike  "  of 
oil,  though  with  this  difference :  Whereas  the  metallic  mineral 
storehouse  may  be  rifled  by  all  and  sundry  equipped  with  a 
spade,  pick,  and  rocker,  with  the  glorious  possibility  of 
proving  a  rich  claim  for  an  insignificant  outlay,  oil  imposes 
a  heavier  demand  upon  skill,  knowledge,  patience,  and 
capital.  As  a  rule  mineral  is  struck  upon  the  surface: 
traces  of  colour  lure  the  toiler  on.  With  oil,  however,  things 
are  quite  different.  Signs  may  be  observed  upon  the  sur- 
face— as,  for  instance,  in  the  form  of  oil-springs — but  such 
evidence  does  not  indicate  necessarily  the  presence  of  the 
deposit  immediately  below  the  outlet,  or  that  the  strike  is 
going  to  be  made  easily. 

The  oil-seeker's  task  is  not  to  be  envied.  In  the  early 
days  oil  prospecting  was  comparatively  easy  and  simple, 
because  the  work  was  confined  to  settled  and  well-populated 
territories,  such  as  the  State  of  Pennsylvania;  but  as  the 
years  wore  on,  and  the  accessible  regions  became  well  de- 
veloped, the  oil-seeker  was  forced  to  travel  farther  afield. 
This  development  brought  about  a  complete  change  in  men 
and  methods.  The  haphazard  was  superseded  by  the 
skilled,  scientific  worker;  the  search  for  the  liquid  mineral 
had  to  be  conducted  upon  systematic  lines. 

17  2 


i8  THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

It  is  a  somewhat  curious  circumstance  that,  although 
Great  Britain  is  deficient  in  native  oil  resources,  British 
endeavour  has  played,  and  still  is  playing,  an  exceedingly 
prominent  part  in  the  revelation  of  new  and  unexpected 
sources  of  supply.  British  engineers  are  in  universal  demand 
for  prospecting  and  proving  oil  deposits  in  new  countries. 
The  reason  may  seem  somewhat  obscure,  because  one  would 
naturally  imagine  that  the  men  with  the  greatest  command 
of  practical  or  field  experience,  such  as  those  who  have  de- 
veloped the  oil-producing  territories  of  the  United  States, 
would  be  in  most  request.  The  explanation  is  simple. 
American  and  British  interests  follow  widely  divergent  lines. 
The  former  bores  for  oil,  like  a  farmer  cultivating  potatoes. 
He  reasons  that  such  and  such  a  district  should  produce 
oil,  and  without  more  ado  sets  to  work  to  tap  it,  as  sure  of 
results  as  a  farmer  is  certain  that  potatoes  will  grow  where  the 
seed  is  planted. 

This  attitude  is  due  to  the  conditions  prevailing  in  the 
American  homeland.  The  United  States  reek  with  petro- 
leum: the  chances  of  success  are  so  overwhelming.  The 
American,  speaking  generally,  is  not  an  oil-prospector;  he 
is  skilled,  rather,  in  the  art  of  drawing  it  from  the  earth  once 
the  deposit  has  been  located.  In  his  own  country  he  has 
made  so  many  hits — he  never  says  a  word  about  his  misses — 
owing  to  fortune  being  on  his  side,  that,  when  he  is  trans- 
planted to  another  country  and  is  urged  to  look  for  oil,  he 
is  nonplussed.  His  one  idea  is  to  bore,  bore,  bore.  If  he 
strikes  oil  he  is  satisfied ;  if  his  efforts  prove  futile  he  expresses 
the  confident  opinion  that  the  country  does  not  possess 
enough  oil  to  float  upon  a  glass  of  water. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  British  oil-seeker  sets  about  his 
task  diligently  and  methodically.  First  of  all  he  knows 
exactly  what  geological  conditions  should  prevail  to  insure 
oil  being  present ;  consequently,  a  knowledge  of  geology  plays 
an  important  part  in  his  system.  He  first  makes  himself 
acquainted  with  the  geological  construction  of  the  country 
in  which  he  is  working;  then,  primed  with  this  information, 
he  relates  whether  oil  is  likely  to  be  found,  and  if  so,  why. 


SEARCHING  THE  WORLD  FOR  OIL  19 

The  average  American  oil-worker  has  a  certain  contempt 
for  geological  deduction;  he  prefers  to  rely  upon  close  ob- 
servation and  a  peculiar  instinct  which  has  been  cultivated 
by  long  association  with  the  subject.  This  attitude  is  ex- 
plicable. The  geologist  has  been  confounded  and  proved 
to  be  in  error  so  many  times,  not  only  in  connection  with 
oil  but  with  other  minerals,  that  his  statements  are  received 
with  scepticism  by  many  practical  men.  The  latter  argue 
that  a  geologist  is  not  possessed  of  more  penetrating  eye- 
sight than  they ;  that  the  geologist  cannot  peer  into  the  earth 
and  see  what  is  beneath,  or  how  the  strata  of  earth  are 
disposed,  their  kinks  and  twists,  their  regularity  or  inter- 
ruptions. In  one  or  two  instances,  when  a  geologist  has 
pronounced  his  opinion  that  a  certain  district  is  oil-less,  the 
practical  worker,  animated  by  feelings  of  sheer  antagonism, 
has  set  to  work  boring  upon  the  barren  spot,  and  has  made 
a  strike,  which  he  has  not  failed  to  blazon  to  the  world  at 
large  as  an  example  of  practice  being  superior  to  scientific 
theory;  in  fact,  had  it  not  been  for  the  latter,  and  his  spirit 
of  wild  speculation,  some  of  the  richest  fields  in  the  States 
might  have  been  lying  dormant  to  this  day. 

However,  it  must  not  be  thought  that  the  British  worker 
depends  essentially  upon  geological  theory.  This  assistance 
is  utilized  merely  as  a  tentative  guide,  because  the  expression 
of  scientific  opinion  may  avoid  considerable  useless  work. 
It  is  more  economical  to  learn  something  about  the  prevail- 
ing geological  formation  than  to  carry  out  a  number  of  trial 
borings  blindly ;  this  is  particularly  the  case  in  connection  with 
distant  countries  which  are  somewhat  inaccessible.  Ques- 
tions of  transport,  commissariat,  and  maintenance  of  com 
munications,  are  of  great  significance  under  such  circum- 
stances. 

Nowadays  prospecting  for  oil  is  carried  out  upon  a  scale 
comparable  with  scouting  for  a  railway  route,  or  even  ex- 
ploration. The  party  not  only  has  to  find  oil,  but  has  to 
determine  the  exact  geographical  situation  of  the  field,  how 
the  necessary  machinery  is  to  be  brought  in,  and  how  the 
oil  raised  is  to  be  transported  economically  to  a  point  of 


20  THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

shipment,  since,  obviously,  it  is  of  no  avail  to  discover  oil 
if  it  cannot  be  turned  to  commercial  account ;  consequently, 
the  oil-prospector  must  be  an  engineer  and  an  explorer  as 
well  as  a  geologist.  When  a  new  country  is  to  be  scoured 
for  oil  deposits  the  oil-prospector  skilfully  organizes  his 
expedition,  and  prosecutes  his  task  with  as  much  care  as 
if  he  were  bent  upon  the  preparation  of  a  survey  map. 
Distances,  altitudes,  and  other  data  have  to  be  collected. 
Depots  or  caches  must  be  established  to  contain  reserves  of 
supplies,  so  that  the  expedition  may  not  be  threatened  with 
disaster,  while  probing  the  unknown  hinterland.  A  force 
of  porters  or  a  pack-train  must  be  provided  to  carry  the 
immediate  necessities  of  the  travelling  party.  The  search 
for  oil  may  appear  a  somewhat  simple  operation,  but,  as  a 
matter  of  fact,  it  has  its  particular  spice  of  adventure,  ex- 
citement, and  encounter  with  the  unexpected. 

As  a  rule  when  a  new  country  is  to  be  investigated,  a 
reconnaissance  is  first  made.  The  oil-prospector,  or,  as  he 
should  be  called,  the  oil-surveyor,  moves  as  swiftly  as  cir- 
cumstances will  permit  through  the  territory,  making  general 
notes  of  the  prevailing  conditions,  the  indications  of  oil, 
proximity  of  water-supplies — a  vital  point — and  suggested 
lines  of  communication,  together  with  an  approximate 
estimate  of  the  cost  of  establishing  lines  for  transportation. 
The  report  in  due  course  is  submitted  to  the  concessionaires, 
or  holders  of  the  rights  to  exploit  the  oil,  together  with  any 
suggestions  which  the  engineer  may  deem  worthy  of  con- 
sideration. 

The  outlook  proving  attractive,  a  second  expedition  is 
sent  to  the  country  to  carry  out  more  detailed  plans.  In 
this  instance  the  party  may  comprise  four  or  five  men,  or,  if 
a  large  territory  is  to  be  surveyed,  its  numbers  may  reach 
thirty  or  more.  The  party  is  subdivided,  each  being  allotted 
a  certain  area  to  cover,  but  all  working  under  a  single  chief. 
The  party  will  include  one  or  two  assistant  engineers,  geolo- 
gists, surveyors,  topographers,  and  possibly  one  or  two 
practical  sinkers  to  carry  out  trial  borings.  If  the  expedi- 
tion is  large,  an  imposing  pack-train  will  be  required,  or, 


SEARCHING  THE  WORLD  FOR  OIL  21 

should  the  country  be  trackless  and  trailless,  porters  will 
have  to  be  hired  to  carry  the  requirements  of  the  party, 
while  another  force  will  have  to  be  rallied  to  move  to  and 
fro  through  the  hinterland,  stocking  the  caches  with  supplies. 

The  work  in  the  field  is  of  varied  character.  The  material 
gathered  from  the  reconnaissance  must  be  resolved  into  more 
minute  detail.  Often,  when  penetrating  a  new  country,  no 
reliable  maps  will  be  in  existence;  accordingly,  the  party 
must  prepare  its  own  maps.  Distances,  which  were  paced 
and  roughly  calculated  upon  the  preliminary  survey,  will  be 
measured  accurately ;  altitudes  will  be  taken  with  precision ; 
suggestions  concerning  transport,  which  the  reconnoitring 
engineer  indicated  briefly  and  roughly,  will  be  amplified  and 
corrected.  While  surveyors  are  driving  their  lines  for  the 
preparation  of  the  topographical  maps,  the  [geologists  are 
making  close  investigations  of  the  construction  of  the  earth's 
crust  and  committing  to  paper  the  contour  of  the  strata. 
The  drillers  are  set  to  work  making  trial  borings,  and  if  these 
substantiate  the  deductions  of  the  geologists,  the  engineers 
set  to  work  aligning  the  roads,  and,  if  necessary,  the  route 
for  railway  communications. 

Owing  to  the  mass  of  detail  which  has  to  be  committed 
to  paper  the  task  necessarily  takes  considerable  time,  especi- 
ally if  trails  and  tracks  have  to  be  driven  to  facilitate  move- 
ment. In  one  case  in  the  East  more  than  thirty  months 
were  spent  in  the  field  before  the  controlling  interests  were 
furnished  with  the  requisite  data  to  enable  them  to  com- 
mence actual  operations.  Nothing  can  be  done  until  the 
surveyors  return,  as  they  alone  have  the  information  upon 
which  subsequent  developments  can  be  conducted. 

Occasionally  the  oil-prospecting  surveyors  are  forced  into 
a  tight  corner.  A  few  years  ago  surface  indications  of  oil 
in  the  Peace  River  country  of  North- West  Canada  aroused 
considerable  interest.  The  first  accounts,  disseminated  by 
inexperienced  men,  intimated  that  the  discovery  was  worth 
following  up.  A  small  party,  numbering  five  or  six  men, 
was  organized,  including  one  prospector,  who  had  gained 
considerable  experience  of  the  oil  question  in  California  and 


22  THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

Mexico,  and  an  engineer.  I  spent  some  days  with  the  latter 
in  a  survey  camp,  and  he  told  the  story  of  the  oil  expedition, 
which  he  described  as  an  "  unholy  nightmare."  The  in- 
formation about  the  exact  location  of  the  "  find,"  as  nar- 
rated by  one  of  the  wanderers  of  the  West,  was  extremely 
hazy.  "  On  the  Peace  River  "  was  approximately  the  sum 
of  his  statement,  and  seeing  that  the  waterway  is  a  few 
hundred  miles  in  length,  it  was  not  very  illuminating;  but 
by  persistent  close  questioning  they  narrowed  the  issue  down 
until  they  obtained  a  tolerably  intelligent  clue  to  the  ap- 
proximate whereabouts  of  what  was  optimistically  stated 
to  be  "  the  biggest  oil-field  in  the  world." 

The  party  set  out,  and,  gaining  the  banks  of  the  Peace 
River,  took  to  Indian  dug-outs.  The  equipment  and  sup- 
plies were  stowed  aboard  very  carefully,  and  although  the 
load  brought  the  free-board  perilously  low,  the  boats  were 
pushed  off.  Paddling  was  comparatively  easy,  although  at 
times  the  vicious  current  made  a  sudden  demand  upon 
navigation  prowess.  One  morning,  while  camp  was  being 
broken,  one  of  the  party  who  had  been  roving  afoot,  re- 
turned with  the  information  that  in  his  opinion  the  oil-field 
must  be  within  reach.  The  journey  was  resumed  about 
7  a.m.,  and  the  men  were  paddling  along  comfortably  when 
the  leading  dug-out  gave  a  wicked  lurch.  Before  those 
aboard  realized  the  situation,  they  were  struggling  desper- 
ately in  the  water;  the  dug-out  had  capsized.  The  second 
boat,  following  closely,  rammed  the  leader,  and  the  inevit- 
able happened:  it  split  from  end  to  end.  The  water  poured 
in,  submerging  the  craft  within  a  few  seconds.  The  whole 
party  contrived  to  scramble  ashore,  and  a  sorry  spectacle 
they  made  when  they  stood  on  the  bank.  All  equipment 
was  lost ;  they  had  nothing  but  the  dollar  bills  in  the  purses 
of  their  belts.  Money  in  such  a  country  is  almost  useless; 
but  it  was  of  no  avail  to  warble  "  Hard  luck,"  so  they 
plodded  through  the  bush,  hoping  to  meet  fortune  in  some 
unexpected  quarter. 

After  trudging  for  some  nine  hours,  and  when  nearly  ex- 
hausted, they  caught  sight  of  smoke  from  a  camp  fire 


1 


HAXD-DUG    WELLS   IN    ROUMANIA. 


By  courtesy  of  the  Oil  Well  Supply  Company. 
BURMESE   WINNING   OIL   FROM   THE   EARTH. 
The  natives  still  practise  their  crude  methods  in  the  shadows  of  the  modern  derricks. 

To  face  page  22. 


II 


SEARCHING  THE  WORLD  FOR  OIL  23 

They  hurried  up  as  well  as  their  expended  energies  would 
allow,  and  reached  the  spot.  Luck  was  in  their  favour;  it 
was  a  railway  survey  camp,  where  they  were  made  extremely 
welcome.  After  a  hearty  meal  and  while  drying  their 
clothes  on  their  backs  around  the  blazing  camp  fire,  they 
related  their  mission.  The  chief  of  the  camp  dashed  their 
hopes  to  the  ground.  There  was  no  oil  in  that  territory,  or 
he  would  have  heard  about  it,  because  nothing  of  that  nature 
had  been  communicated  to  his  headquarters  by  the  recon- 
noitring surveyor,  who  knew  every  mile  of  the  country. 
But  he  had  heard  that  oil  had  been  seen  about  300  miles 
in  the  opposite  direction !  The  face  of  the  leader  of  the 
oil-prospecting  party  was  a  study ;  he  consigned  those  north- 
western wanderers,  who  have  no  idea  of  distance  or  location, 
to  oblivion.  With  the  assistance  of  the  railway  path- 
finders, who  were  camped  on  the  river-bank,  a  raft  was 
fashioned,  the  prospectors  were  re-equipped  with  supplies, 
and  were  given  a  hearty  farewell. 

Oil  was  not  found  on  that  journey:  not  sufficient  to  make 
a  chipmunk  intoxicated,  as  the  surveyor  quaintly  related. 
By  the  time  the  party  returned  to  the  States  and  made  their 
report,  some  £8,000,  or  $40,000,  had  been  expended,  and  all 
to  no  purpose.  But  there  is  oil  in  the  Peace  River  country, 
as  subsequent  investigations,  carried  out  under  more  con- 
genial conditions,  have  revealed;  the  foregoing  party  merely 
missed  the  district,  that  was  all,  which  goes  to  indicate  the 
gambling  character  of  the  task  of  looking  for  oil. 

Another  expedition — which  at  one  time,  it  was  feared,  had 
met  with  disaster — was  despatched  from  London  to  the  in- 
terior of  Bolivia.  The  party  comprised  nearly  thirty  British 
engineers  and  geologists,  who  were  mapping  out  and  prov- 
ing some  3,000  square  miles  of  territory.  Roads  and  even 
trails  were  conspicuous  by  their  absence;  consequently,  the 
expedition  had  to  drive  its  own  paths  through  the  forest, 
which  was  found  to  be  exceptionally  dense.  Fortunately 
the  extreme  elevation  of  the  Bolivian  plateau  robbed  toiling 
in  a  tropical  country  of  many  of  its  most  fearsome  plagues. 
Mosquitoes  and  miasma  were  comparatively  absent.  The 


24  THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

expedition  had  been  planned  with  extreme  care.  A  fully 
equipped  commissariat  train  maintained  the  depots  in  the 
bush  with  provisions,  although  the  absence  of  communica- 
tion facilities  proved  a  serious  drawback.  The  headquarters 
in  London  only  received  intelligence  from  the  front  at  fitful 
intervals,  when  the  expedition  happened  to  meet  the  supply 
train,  or  was  able  to  despatch  letters  through  passing  traders. 

Some  weeks  had  passed  without  any  sort  of  intelligence 
being  received ;  then,  one  morning,  the  newspapers  came  out 
with  telegrams  announcing  that  a  party  in  the  wilds  of 
Bolivia  had  been  surprised  by  some  truculent  natives  and 
had  been  massacred.  It  was  feared  that  the  oil-survey 
party  had  come  to  grief,  as  the  men  were  working  in  the 
inaccessible  dangerous  territory  indicated.  The  newspaper 
information  was  meagre;  only  the  bare  details  were  vouch- 
safed. Inquiries  were  cabled  out  immediately,  but  no 
definite  response  was  received.  Anxiety  was  giving  way  to 
practical  certainty,  when  the  chief  engineer-in-the-field 
cabled  home  that  his  work  was  completed,  and  that  the 
whole  party,  safe  and  sound,  was  preparing  to  return  to 
the  coast.  Subsequently  it  was  ascertained  that  it  was 
another  expedition,  labouring  in  a  different  corner  of  the 
country,  which  had  fallen  foul  of  the  natives  and  had  been 
overwhelmed. 

Even  in  civilized  areas  the  task  of  the  oil-prospector  is 
not  always  agreeable.  The  Nobel  Company,  which  virtually 
controls  the  petroleum  industry  of  the  Caucasus,  was  anxious 
to  extend  its  operations.  An  island  in  the  Caspian  Sea 
attracted  attention.  Would  it  yield  oil  ?  The  question 
could  only  be  answered  satisfactorily  by  making  investiga- 
tions upon  the  spot.  A  young  Englishman  was  deputed  to 
undertake  the  unattractive  task.  The  islet  was  almost  out 
of  sight  of  land,  uninhabited,  uninviting,  and  lonely.  The 
party  pushed  off,  and  the  toilers  made  themselves  as  comfort- 
able as  conditions  upon  the  barren  outpost  would  allow. 
Geological  indications  were  favourable,  and  wells  were  sunk. 
Six  months  elapsed  before  the  underlying  oil  was  tapped, 
and  then  the  Englishman  was  permitted  to  return  to  the 


SEARCHING  THE  WORLD  FOR  OIL  25 

mainland,  his  work  completed;  but  he  admits  that  it  was 
the  dreariest  half-year  in  his  life.  Only  on  rare  occasions 
was  he  able  to  return  to  the  shore,  and  then  but  for  brief 
periods.  Many  of  his  men  chafed  under  the  restraint  and 
refused  to  stay.  Under  trying  conditions  he  had  to  keep 
his  forces  going  day  and  night.  It  was  as  lonely  as  being 
marooned  upon  a  penal  settlement,  and  Baku,  though  by 
no  means  alluring  under  the  happiest  of  conditions,  was 
positively  inviting  when  he  returned,  for  the  last  time, 
from  that  lonely  island  in  the  Caspian  Sea. 

The  British  oil-prospecting  surveyor  is  like  the  material 
for  which  he  searches — he  is  found  in  all  parts  of  the  world. 
To  his  energies  and  activity  are  due  the  opening  up  of  many 
of  the  new  sources  of  supply,  and  he  is  labouring  diligently 
to  extend  this  field  of  productivity.  It  is  a  task  which  ap- 
peals to  the  British  instinct ;  it  involves  the  penetration  and 
settlement  of  the  unknown,  wrestling  with  the  unexpected, 
an  incessant  struggle  with  abnormal  difficulties.  It  is  also 
a  valuable  school  of  experience ;  but  for  the  knowledge  thus 
gained,  many  of  the  oil-fields  which  now  are  pouring  forth 
their  wealth  of  liquid  fuel  by  thousands  of  tons  daily  the 
whole  year  round,  would  be  unknown.  Through  perse- 
verance and  activity  Burmah,  Borneo,  South  America, 
Africa,  Roumania,  and  even  Russia  and  Siberia,  have  been 
compelled  to  reveal  their  dormant  resources  of  oil. 

In  some  instances  primitive  native  effort  in  the  extraction 
of  oil  has  induced  methodical  development  upon  a  compre- 
hensive scale.  If  the  local  inhabitants  can  draw  paying 
quantities  from  shallow  wells,  it  is  only  natural  to  surmise 
that  modern  drilling  must  tap  the  deposits  in  abundance; 
this  is  only  a  logical  conclusion.  Certainly  it  was  the  case 
in  Java.  An  enterprising  Dutch  engineer  followed  the 
operations  of  the  natives,  and  their  success  induced  him  to 
undertake  a  scientific  exploitation.  So,  in  1888,  he  founded 
a  small  company,  with  a  capital  of  less  than  £30,000,  or 
$150,000,  to  carry  out  drilling  and  to  erect  a  refinery. 
He  plunged  boldly  into  the  dense  jungle,  and  at  the  promis- 
ing spots  made  small  clearings  in  which  rude  derricks  were 


26  THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

run  up.  Before  drilling  for  oil,  he  had  to  find  adequate 
water-supplies  to  flush  out  the  oil-borings .  In  some  instances 
he  was  forced  to  draw  the  necessary  water  from  a  distance, 
and  in  such  cases  it  was  conveyed  to  the  oil-well  through 
pipes  and  stored  in  tanks.  His  plant  was  extremely  primi- 
tive. The  derrick  was  a  skeleton  pyramid  structure, 
fashioned  from  bamboo  poles,  while  the  buildings  for  housing 
the  natives  and  machinery  were  equally  rough — bamboo 
shacks  roofed  with  palm-leaves.  The  oil-wells  were  bored 
by  hand,  because  the  cost  of  taking  mechanical  plant  through 
a  country  possessing  no  roads  would  have  been  prohibitive. 

The  wells  were  gushers,  and  were  generally  brought  into 
action  at  a  comparatively  shallow  depth.  The  crude  oil 
was  caught  in  ponds,  or  tanks,  where  it  was  allowed  to 
settle,  after  which  it  was  pumped  through  pipe-lines  to  the 
refinery.  Despite  the  disadvantageous  conditions  under 
which  this  pioneer  laboured,  he  found  that  he  was  drawing 
more  oil  than  he  could  refine;  accordingly,  another  refinery 
was  built,  and  the  company  thus  was  able  to  turn  out  about 
1,000,000  gallons  of  illuminating  oil  per  month.  The  refined 
oil  found  a  ready  sale  among  the  25,000,000  inhabitants  of 
Java,  among  whom  it  was  distributed  by  railway  tank  cars. 
It  was  the  success  of  this  initial  undertaking  which  attracted 
world- wide  attention  to  the  oil  resources  of  Java,  and  eventu- 
ally resulted  in  the  formation  of  what  is  to-day  one  of  the 
most  powerful  oil  companies  in  the  world. 

But  probably  the  opening  of  the  Mexican  oil-field  is  the 
most  romantic  story  in  the  history  of  the  oil  industry. 
Although  the  oil  deposits  of  Mexico  were  known  during  the 
time  of  the  Spanish  occupation,  nothing  was  done  until 
1868,  when  Dr.  Autray,  of  Angostura  Bitters  fame,  found 
the  oil-springs  of  Cugas,  and  from  this  surface  yield  refined 
illuminating  oil  by  means  of  a  small  still.  Unfortunately, 
his  initial  effort  ended  in  disaster,  probably  owing  to 
the  limited  scale  upon  which  operations  were  conducted 
and  the  paucity  of  the  local  demand.  The  scheme  was 
abandoned,  the  necessary  financial  support  being  with- 
drawn. 


SEARCHING  THE  WORLD  FOR  OIL  27 

In  the  early  eighties  of  the  last  century  British  interests 
decided  to  make  another  attempt  to  develop  the  Mexican 
oil  reserves.  They  co-operated  with  American  engineers 
and  financiers,  and  started  drilling  upon  a  small  scale;  but 
the  American  engineers  were  somewhat  ill-disposed  towards 
British  activity.  It  is  stated  that  they  intentionally  drilled 
upon  barren  spots,  with  the  idea  of  exhausting  the  funds 
available,  and  inducing  disgust  among  the  British  capitalists. 
Then,  by  accretion  of  fresh  American  capital,  they  intended 
to  resume  operations  upon  the  proved  areas,  where  oil  would 
be  struck,  and  thus  bring  the  fields  under  American  control. 
It  was  an  ingenious  plan,  but  fortunately  it  went  agley. 
The  British  capitalists  certainly  became  disgusted  at  the 
small  fruits  attending  their  enterprise,  and,  as  anticipated, 
they  withdrew  from  the  project.  The  engineers,  exulting 
at  the  success  of  their  move,  quietly  went  to  the  American 
interests  which  had  co-operated  with  British  effort,  revealed 
their  proposal,  and  sought  further  support ;  but  the  American 
financiers  construed  the  suggestions  as  an  excuse  for  wasting 
additional  good  money,  and  to  the  sheer  disappointment  of 
the  drillers  they  refused  to  advance  another  cent,  maintain- 
ing that,  as  their  British  colleagues  had  not  received  the 
slightest  return  upon  their  outlay,  there  was  no  evidence 
that  the  American  financiers  ever  would  be  any  better  off. 
Thus  came  to  an  untimely  end  the  first  attempt  to  exploit 
Mexico's  oil  reserves. 

During  the  nineties  the  well-known  engineering  organiza- 
tion presided  over  by  Sir  Weetman  Pearson,  now  Lord 
Cowdray,  was  engaged  in  the  reconstruction  of  the  Isthmian, 
or  Tehuantepec,  Railway.  During  one  of  his  periodical 
visits,  the  head  of  the  firm  observed  evidences  of  oil  near 
the  line.  Attracted  by  the  discovery,  he  gave  instructions 
for  borings  to  be  driven,  and,  as  he  anticipated,  oil  was 
struck.  A  refinery  was  erected  capable  of  handling  1,400 
tons  of  crude  oil  per  day.  A  promising  field  was  opened  up 
in  this  manner,  although,  as  events  proved,  it  was  insigni- 
ficant compared  with  the  areas  subsequently  revealed  in 
other  parts  of  the  country. 


28  THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

The  success  of  this  first  move  prompted  Lord  Cowdray  to 
carry  out  his  operations  upon  a  more  extensive  scale.  He 
despatched  his  prospectors  and  engineers  to  other  corners  of 
the  country  along  the  Atlantic  seaboard,  and  in  this  way 
brought  to  light  the  immense  reserves  of  oil  lying  in  Northern 
Vera  Cruz.  A  huge  sensation  was  created  by  bringing  in 
the  celebrated  "  dos  Bocas  "  well,  which  probably  ranks  as 
the  largest  gusher  ever  struck,  and  subsequently  the  great 
Potrero  de  Llano  No.  4.  Before  Lord  Cowdray,  who  is 
now  known  as  the  Mexican  Oil  King,  commenced  operations, 
Mexico  was  considered  a  doubtful  oil-field.  The  organiza- 
tion in  possession  was  the  Waters-Pierce  Company,  a  sub- 
sidiary of  the  Standard  Oil  Company,  which  imported  all 
high-grade  oils,  and  sold  the  local  crude  product  to  the  rail- 
ways for  fuel.  Under  energetic  British  enterprise  all  doubts 
were  swept  aside,  and  in  the  course  of-  a  few  years  Mexico 
came  to  be  regarded  as  a  serious  competitor  to  the  United 
States.  To-day  more  oil  is  drawn  from  this  country  in  the 
course  of  twenty-four  hours  than  was  obtained  in  a  whole 
year  twenty  years  ago. 

Perhaps  one  of  the  most  interesting  and  romantic  in- 
stances of  the  difficulties,  trials,  and  tribulations,  as  well  as 
uncertainties,  pertaining  to  the  task  of  the  oil-prospector, 
at  least  during  recent  times,  is  associated  with  Persia.  Some 
years  ago  an  enterprising  Britisher,  Mr.  D'Arcy,  decided  to 
search  the  dreary  wastes  of  this  bygone  Empire  for  reserves 
of  oil,  and,  in  the  event  of  their  existence  being  revealed 
upon  a  sufficiently  promising  scale,  to  develop  a  local  industry. 
The  project  was  characterized  as  one  of  the  most  fantastic 
ever  contemplated,  but  there  was  method  in  the  Britisher's 
madness.  Rumours  and  native  stories  of  natural  yields  of 
oil  had  reached  his  ears ;  he  investigated  them,  and  concluded 
that  rich  oil  deposits  existed,  but  the  puzzle  was  to  find  them. 
This  question  could  be  settled  only  by  embarking  upon 
methodical  investigation  of  the  country.  To  insure  his 
position,  Mr.  D'Arcy  approached  the  Shah  and  succeeded 
in  securing  the  sole  concession  for  prospecting  and  exploiting 
throughout  the  vast  territory  known  as  Western  and  South- 


SEARCHING  THE  WORLD  FOR  OIL  29 

Western  Persia,  where  the  conditions  seemed  most  favour- 
able. 

Armed  with  this  authority,  the  work  was  commenced 
upon  a  systematic  basis.  One  or  two  expert  Canadian  oil- 
drillers  were  engaged,  and  the  little  party  plunged  into  the 
heart  of  the  forbidding  sterile  and  roasting  country  to  hunt 
for  oil.  Borings  appear  to  have  been  concentrated  upon 
the  most  inaccessible  and  deadly  depressing  stretches  of 
the  country,  but  the  quest  proved  a  heart-breaking  and 
maddening  string  of  failures.  Borings  were  driven  one 
after  the  other,  here,  there,  and  everywhere;  but  the  oil- 
sands,  if  they  were  present,  completely  baffled  search. 
The  outlook  was  distinctly  depressing.  A  round  £200,000, 
or  $1,000,000,  had  been  sunk  in,  and  apparently  had  been 
absorbed  by,  the  blistering  sands,  and  all  to  no  purpose. 
Even  some  of  the  most  enthusiastic  believers  in  Mr. 
D'Arcy's  courageous  enterprise  commenced  to  entertain 
misgivings.  The  sands  of  Persia  evidently  possessed  no 
more  oil  than  the  ice-floes  of  the  Polar  seas. 

While  toiling  among  the  silent  wastes,  striving  to  "  suck 
juice  from  Hades,"  Mr.  D'Arcy  met  a  fellow- worker  who  was 
labouring  diligently  in  another  field  of  activity  in  the  same 
country.  The  latter  had  penetrated  a  corner  which  the 
mad  Britisher  so  far  had  not  gained.  The  conversation 
naturally  centred  upon  one  another's  objects  and  labours. 
The  stranger,  when  he  learned  that  oil  was  D'Arcy's  ob- 
jective, directed  the  latter 's  attention  to  some  natural  tar- 
springs,  which  were  being  worked  upon  a  limited  scale  and 
in  a  primitive  manner  between  Mai- Amir  and  Shustar. 
Curiously  enough,  the  spot  was  known  among  the  resident 
tribe  by  a  name  which  interpreted  runs  "  The  Field  of 
Oil." 

This  was  news  indeed,  and  Mr.  D'Arcy  hurried  his  little 
party  to  the  spot.  Here  he  found  a  natural  oil-spring 
trickling  from  the  ground,  and  investigation  showed  it  to 
be  rich  in  naphthas.  But  his  indomitable  optimism  and 
energy  received  a  shock.  The  natives  had  been  exploiting 
this  oil  upon  a  slender  scale  since  time  immemorial.  The 


30  THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

oil,  as  it  issued  from  the  ground,  was  collected  in  small 
ponds,  formed  by  the  erection  of  rude  dams,  where  a  simple 
process  of  natural  fractional  distillation  took  place.  The 
fierce  solar  heat  evaporated  the  more  volatile  constituents, 
while  the  oxidizing  action  of  the  atmosphere  made  the  oil 
take  a  thick,  viscous  form,  which  in  the  course  of  time  was 
withdrawn  by  the  natives  and  sold  for  various  purposes, 
such  as  a  plaster  and  unguent  for  wounds,  and  also  for 
caulking  boats.  When  Mr.  D'Arcy  intimated  his  intention 
to  start  boring  operations  upon  this  spot,  his  move  met  with 
unveiled  antagonism.  He  was  encroaching  upon  vested 
interests.  Before  he  could  be  permitted  to  put  a  drill  into 
the  ground  he  would  have  to  compensate  those  in  posses- 
sion. The  canny  natives  anticipated  that  if  the  Britisher, 
with  his  scientific  methods, 'tapped  the  wondrous  material 
below,  their  spring  would  dry  up.  To  avoid  any  conflict, 
Mr.  D'Arcy  offered  to  buy  out  the  natives'  rights;  but  the 
latter  at  first  showed  no  disposition  to  dispose  of  their 
riches.  The  oil-springs  which  had  been  so  indifferently 
worked  suddenly  assumed  an  enormous  value  in  the  eyes 
of  the  local  inhabitants.  Haggling  and  bickering  ensued, 
and  at  last,  fretting  and  fuming  at  the  turn  things  had  taken, 
and  the  delay  caused  by  the  dilatory  tactics  of  the  tribes- 
men, the  Britisher  agreed  to  their  terms.  The  rights  were 
purchased  and  the  natives  departed,  no  doubt  laughing  up 
their  sleeves  at  the  way  they  had  tricked  the  mad  Britisher. 
The  drills  were  set  to  work,  and  descended  steadily  to 
a  depth  of  1,000  feet.  But  up  to  this  point  the  evidences 
of  oil  had  been  disappointing.  However,  the  drill  was  kept 
going,  and  then,  when  another  100  feet  had  been  driven, 
the  tools  crunched  through  the  overlying  crust  of  rock  into 
the  oil-sands.  The  strike  was  revealed  in  no  uncertain 
manner.  The  confined  oil,  directly  a  vent  was  offered, 
surged  up  the  bore-hole  with  mad  velocity,  and  rushed  forth 
from  the  earth  to  a  height  of  70  feet,  carrying  the  derrick 
away  with  it.  The  oil  flowed  in  such  volume  that  the  perse- 
vering toilers  were  amazed  at  their  success.  Every  penny 
poured  into  the  ground  was  being  returned  a  thousandfold. 


SEARCHING  THE  WORLD  FOR  OIL  31 

Hurriedly  they  fashioned  earthen  dams  to  collect  the  oil 
until  the  flow  could  be  controlled. 

The  point  then  arose,  How  could  the  oil  be  transported 
to  a  convenient  shipping  point  ?  "The  Field  of  Oil"  is 
situate  in  most  forbidding  country,  far  removed  from  sea 
or  other  means  of  cheap  conveyance.  The  situation  was 
discussed,  and  it  was  finally  decided  to  tackle  the  question 
boldly,  and  to  lay  a  pipe-line  from  the  oil  district  to  tide- 
water upon  the  Persian  Gulf.  This  was  a  daring  under- 
taking in  itself,  inasmuch  as  it  involved  the  construction 
of  170  miles  of  pipe-line  through  barren,  roadless  country. 
Powerful  Gainsborough  tractors  were  ordered  hurriedly 
from  London,  while  trailing  vehicles  were  purchased  to 
carry  the  pipes  required  for  the  work  across  the  pitiless 
desert.  At  the  tide- water  end  a  refinery  was  erected, 
where  the  liquid  mineral,  as  it  comes  down  from  the  hinter- 
land, is  submitted  to  the  involved  process  of  distillation. 
Once  this  transportation  connection  was  established,  further 
drilling  was  undertaken,  and  well  after  well  was  brought 
into  activity.  To-day  Persia  is  generally  accepted  as  being 
rich  in  petroleum,  and  is  destined  to  become  one  of  the 
largest  and  most  prosperous  oil-fields  in  the  world,  more 
particularly  since  the  British  Government  acquired  the  con- 
trolling interest  in  the  company  exploiting  the  proved  field 
by  the  investment  of  £2,200,000  ($11,000,000)  to  meet 
the  national  demands  for  liquid  fuel,  and  to  remedy,  to  a 
certain  degree,  the  deficiency  in  home  supplies. 

The  success  of  the  operations  in  Persia  has  prompted 
further  investigation  in  Mesopotamia,  inasmuch  as  the 
proved  Persian  fields  abut  on  the  international  frontier. 
It  is  only  natural  to  assume,  therefore,  that  the  oil-beds 
extend  westwards  into  the  Asian  reaches  of  the  Turkish 
Empire.  This  territory  is  now  being  prospected,  and  news 
of  further  sensational  strikes  are  anticipated.  Irrigation 
engineering  is  endeavouring  to  restore  the  agricultural  value 
of  the  country,  but  if  present  indications  offer  any  criterion, 
it  is  only  natural  to  surmise  that  the  Garden  of  Eden  is 
destined  to  become  a  Garden  of  Oil. 


32  THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

While  the  Persian  and  other  fields  have  been  brought 
into  activity  as  a  result  of  persevering  and  systematic 
search,  other  districts  have  been  brought  to  the  notice  of 
the  world  by  accident.  He  was  a  closely  observant,  astute 
man  who  first  pointed  to  the  fact  that  oil  was  likely  to  be 
found  in  Egypt.  The  story  runs  that  a  passenger  on  board 
one  of  the  liners  bound  for  the  East  noticed  oil  floating 
upon  the  water  around  the  vessel  as  she  drove  her  way  out 
of  the  Gulf  of  Suez.  Whence  came  the  oil  ?  The  question 
set  the  traveller  thinking.  He  argued  that  it  must  issue 
from  the  earth  somewhere  in  the  vicinity.  He  kept  his  own 
counsel  until  he  returned  home.  Then  he  revealed  his 
observations  and  theories  to  interested  colleagues,  whom  he 
urged  to  undertake  prospecting  upon  the  Egyptian  banks 
of  the  Red  Sea.  It  was  a  circumstantial  clue  upon  which 
he  based  his  arguments,  but  the  suggestion  was  accepted. 
A  syndicate  was  formed,  and,  as  is  well  known,  natural 
oil-springs  were  found.  Borings  were  driven  to  a  depth 
of  2,000  feet,  at  which  level  the  paying  sands  were  pene- 
trated, and  oil  poured  forth  in  a  copious  stream.  The 
probability  is  that  the  Persian  fields  extend  through 
Arabia,  underlie  the  Red  Sea,  and  reach  far  into  the 
interior  of  sterile  Africa,  possibly  below  the  roasting  Sahara 
itself. 

During  the  past  few  years  many  ingenious  efforts  have 
been  made  towards  the  perfection  of  mechanical  instruments 
for  determining  the  existence  of  oil.  These  are  meant  to 
supersede  the  scientific  theories  of  the  geologist.  One 
might  almost  term  it  "  oil-divining."  The  most  striking 
success  in  this  direction  has  been  won  by  the  instrument 
devised  by  a  British  inventor,  which  is  known  as  the  Mans- 
field automatic  oil-finder.  Curiously  enough,  this  apparatus 
was  not  devised  for  application  to  this  service,  but  was  in- 
tended for  indicating  the  existence  of  subterranean  supplies 
of  water.  Its  success  in  this  direction  was  so  sensational 
that  the  Indian  Government  went  so  far  as  to  issue  a  Blue 
Book  narrating  official  experiments  therewith,  and  recom- 
mended its  adoption  in  that  Empire,  since  success  was  far 


SEARCHING  THE  WORLD  FOR  OIL  33 

more  likely  to  be  achieved  by  its  aid  than  by  the  usual 
scientific  methods  then  in  vogue. 

This  instrument  works  upon  the  principle  of  indicating 
the  presence  of  electric  currents  flowing  between  the  earth 
and  the  atmosphere.  Naturally,  these  currents  seek  the 
paths  of  greatest  conductivity,  and,  accordingly,  are  always 
strongest  in  the  vicinity  of  subterranean  watercourses,  the 
waters  of  which  are  charged  with  electricity  to  a  certain 
degree.  The  instrument  is  provided  with  a  needle,  similar 
to  that  of  the  mariner's  compass,  and  the  presence  of  the 
electrical  current  induces  its  deflection  to  varying  degrees, 
according  to  the  strength  of  the  electrical  vibrations.  The 
general  procedure  is  to  space  wooden  pegs  over  an  area 
which  is  thought  possible  of  yielding  water,  and  to  space 
them  twenty  paces  apart  in  a  direction  usually  south-east  to 
north-west.  The  instrument  is  successively  placed  over  these 
pegs,  and  as  the  needle  moves  the  extent  of  its  deflection  is 
recorded.  The  point  where  the  needle  shows  the  maximum 
movement  is  the  spot  where  the  greatest  supply  of  water 
exists,  and  where  the  borings  should  be  carried  out.  If 
the  needle  does  not  move,  there  is  no  water  present. 
Curiously  enough,  the  instrument  indicates  the  presence  of 
water  which  is  flowing  in  a  natural  state  only.  Water 
flowing  through  pipes,  or  sources  that  have  sprung  up  to 
daylight,  have  no  effect  whatever  upon  the  needle. 

Upon  one  occasion,  while  experiments  were  being  con- 
ducted for  the  discovery  of  water,  the  needle  was  observed 
to  behave  in  a  new  and  peculiar  manner.  This  erratic 
action  prompted  the  driving  of  a  trial  boring  to  elucidate 
the  problem,  if  at  all  possible.  To  the  amazement  of  those 
concerned,  not  only  was  water  tapped,  but  oil  as  well. 
The  reason  for  the  unusual  action  of  the  needle  was  re- 
vealed. Oil-beds  are  always  covered  with  what  may  be 
described  as  a  water-blanket,  in  the  form  of  clays,  shales, 
slates,  and  so  on.  These  water-impregnated  strata  act  as 
a  vehicle  for  the  currents  flowing  in  the  earth,  and  between 
the  earth  and  the  atmosphere;  but  the  non-conducting  oil 

3 


34  THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

beneath  acts  so  powerfully  and  strangely  upon  the  needle 
that  its  presence  is  recognized  at  once. 

This  discovery  was  of  the  utmost  importance,  and  to  test 
its  reliability  the  apparatus  was  subjected  to  searching 
tests  upon  several  oil-fields.  In  every  instance  the  correct 
spots  for  boring  were  quickly  revealed,  and  when  drills  were 
sunk,  the  accuracy  of  the  indication  was  proved.  The 
success  of  these  confirmatory  experiments  now  enables  oil- 
prospectors  to  determine  exactly  where  the  well  should  be 
sunk.  There  is  no  further  need  to  run  trial  borings  upon 
the  haphazard  principle,  with  the  possibility  of  missing  the 
oil.  By  making  a  detailed  survey  of  the  ground  with  this 
instrument,  uncertainty  is  converted  into  a  certainty.  It 
is  not  surprising  to  learn  that  the  instrument  has  been 
adopted  by  several  of  the  leading  oil-producing  companies 
in  various  parts  of  the  world,  since  it  has  been  the  means  of 
avoiding  appreciable  financial  waste  in  the  sinking  of  wells 
in  sterile  places. 


CHAPTER  III 
THE  WELL-DRILLER  AND  HIS  TOOLS 

BORING  for  oil  sounds  a  simple,  straightforward  operation. 
So  it  is,  more  or  less ;  but  several  circumstances  materially 
affect  the  cost  of  the  work.  Under  certain  conditions  a 
well  may  be  sunk  for  quite  an  insignificant  sum,  but  more 
often  than  not  the  oil-sands  are  not  penetrated  until  a  heavy 
expenditure  has  been  incurred. 

To  sink  a  well  in  an  exploited,  well-known  oil-field  is  not 
so  costly,  as  a  rule,  as  to  pioneer  in  a  new  country.  In  the 
former  case  transportation  facilities  are  available,  while 
labour  is  generally  plentiful.  In  such  cases  the  cost  is 
affected  by  the  depth  to  which  the  well  has  to  be  sunk 
before  the  oil  is  tapped.  On  the  other  hand,  when  a  new 
country  is  to  be  opened  up,  the  preliminaries  which  have 
to  be  completed  before  the  drill  can  be  set  going  may 
exceed  many  times  the  actual  task  of  boring. 

A  new  oil  territory  is  always  void  of  means  of  transporta- 
tion; often  there  is  not  a  friendly  bush-road  or  even  trail 
available.  Accordingly,  before  the  necessary  plant  can  be 
taken  to  the  site,  heavy  and  costly  preparatory  work  is 
imperative.  The  ground  has  to  be  cleared,  a  road  with 
negotiable  gradients  has  to  be  fashioned,  while  sometimes 
a  railway  has  to  be  laid.  The  labour  question  is  almost 
certain  to  be  acute.  Experienced  labour  has  to  be  taken 
into  the  new  field,  even  in  civilized  countries,  to  carry  out 
the  skilled  part  of  the  work,  assisted  by  common  or  native 
labour.  But  even  the  latter  is  often  impossible  to  recruit 
in  the  immediate  vicinity,  and  consequently  has  to  be  taken 
in  from  distant  points.  This  force  has  to  be  housed  and  fed, 
and  although  the  requirements  in  this  direction  may  not  be 
exacting,  the  question  is  not  free  from  its  peculiar  anxieties. 
35 


36  THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

Water  is  another  vital  factor.  Not  only  is  it  essential 
for  the  labourers,  but  drilling  is  impossible  without  it.  The 
engineer  has  to  make  doubly  sure  that  ample  supplies  of 
water  are  within  easy  reach.  In  this  connection  con- 
siderable ingenuity  often  is  displayed.  The  opening  up  of 
the  Peruvian  oil-fields  is  an  interesting  case  in  point.  The 
deposits  here  are  beneath  the  flat,  arid  stretches  fringing  the 
seashore — the  field  probably  extends  beneath  the  ocean. 
The  adjacent  country  does  not  yield  a  drop  of  fresh  water, 
owing  to  the  absence  of  rainfall  for  many  years  past ;  there 
is  no  friendly  river,  stream,  or  even  spring. 

To  meet  this  difficult  situation,  an  elaborate  plant  had  to 
be  installed  for  the  distillation  of  fresh  from  sea  water. 
This  circuitous  process  unavoidably  enhances  the  cost  of 
winning  the  precious  petroleum,  and  so  the  water-supply 
has  to  be  husbanded  most  carefully.  After  the  field  had 
been  proved,  and  had  been  firmly  established,  the  water 
question  grew  more  acute,  because  larger  and  larger  volumes 
were  demanded  for  the  pumping  plant.  Messrs.  Thompson 
and  Hunter,  the  well-known  British  petroleum  engineers, 
conceived  a  novel  idea.  This  was  the  condensation  of  the 
steam,  after  it  had  completed  its  work  in  the  engines,  instead 
of  permitting  it  to  escape  into  the  air.  The  conventional 
condensing  apparatus  was  out  of  the  question,  because  of 
its  expense.  At  this  particular  point  strong  cooling  winds 
are  prevalent,  and  the  engineers  accordingly  decided  to 
harness  this  force,  and  to  compel  it  to  perform  the  condensing 
operation.  A  huge  radiator  was  erected,  designed  upon 
lines  identical  with  those  followed  in  modern  motor-car 
practice.  The  exhaust  steam  from  the  engines  is  passed 
into  this  large  honeycomb,  and,  being  exposed  to  the  full 
blast  of  the  wind  playing  upon  the  radiator's  surface,  is 
chilled  and  reconverted  into  water.  The  plant  works  upon 
the  well-known  thermo-siphon  principle,  and  this  unusual 
application  has  proved  highly  satisfactory,  as  well  as 
economical. 

The  fuel  question  is  often  perplexing.  In  the  Bush 
timber  is  generally  available  for  firing  the  boilers,  but  in 


NATIVE   SURF-BOATS   LANDING   SUPPLIES    FOR   PERUVIAN    OIL-FIELDS. 


By  courtesy  of  the  Oil  Well  Supply  Company. 
PUMPING-WELLS   ON   THE   SEASHORE   OF   PERU. 


To  face  page 


A    MODERN    WELL-DRILLING   PLANT. 
The  above  is  known  as  the  "  Pennsylvania"  Standard  Cable  Outfit. 


By  courtesy  of  the  Oil  ll'ell  Supply  Company. 
INSIDE   THE   DERRICK  :    INSERTING   THE   PIPE   CASING. 

Showing  the  Californian  tongs  employed  to  screw  a  new  length  of  pipe  into  that  already 
sunk  into  the  ground. 


To  face  page  37. 


THE  WELL-DRILLER  AND  HIS  TOOLS  37 

sterile  countries  the  outlook  assumes  quite  a  different  com- 
plexion. In  the  Soudan,  for  instance,  coal,  which  has  to 
be  imported,  costs  upwards  of  £3  ($15)  per  ton;'while  at  many 
points  upon  the  American  and  Canadian  prairies  it  exceeds 
this  figure.  Of  course,  once  petroleum  gas  or  oil  is  obtained, 
the  fuel  difficulty  vanishes.  The  gas  escaping  from  the  well 
can  be  turned  to  useful  account  under  the  boilers,  while  the 
oil  itself  is  utilized  for  steam-raising  purposes.  The  steam- 
engine,  however,  is  undergoing  partial  displacement, 
although  a  few  years  ago  it  was  employed  exclusively. 
Upon  a  new  field  it  prevails  at  least  for  the  initial  stages, 
but  when  the  well  is  brought  into  productivity  it  is  generally 
superseded  by  the  gas-engine.  The  advantages  of  the 
latter  are  so  pronounced  that  they  cannot  be  ignored.  It 
occupies  less  space;  the  water  question  is  overcome;  less 
labour  and  attention  are  necessary ;  and  the  cost  of  operation 
is  considerably  lower.  The  gas  flowing  from  the  well  is 
piped  to  the  engine,  and  thus  the  well  pumps  itself. 

The  conveyance  of  the  plant  is  often  beset  with  difficulties 
and  worries  innumerable.  If  no  railway  is  available,  then 
everything  has  to  be  conveyed  overland  by  the  best  methods 
obtainable.  It  may  be  by  bullock  teams,  pack-ponies,  or 
even  the  heads  of  native  porters.  Seeing  that  some  of  the 
component  parts  of  the  machinery,  particularly  the  boilers, 
are  bulky  and  weighty,  their  movement  over  even  a  few 
miles  places  a  heavy  tax  upon  animal  effort.  In  the  case  of 
the  Peruvian  fields,  owing  to  the  lack  of  harbour  accommo- 
dation and  the  exposed  character  of  the  coast-line,  the 
vessels  were  forced  to  lie  some  distance  off  the  shore,  in  the 
open  roadstead,  and  to  discharge  their  loads  into  native 
boats,  which  were  compelled  to  run  the  gauntlet  of  the  heavy 
surf.  If  possible,  a  small  jetty  or  pier  is  erected,  to  enable 
supplies  to  be  landed  safely ;  but  this  practice  is  not  always 
possible,  especially  upon  such  coasts  as  that  of  the  Pacific 
seaboard  of  South  America.  When  the  field  of  operations 
is  thousands  of  miles  from  the  nearest  markets,  extreme  care 
is  essential  to  avoid  losses  of  material,  since  an  accident 
causes  serious  delays  while  replacements  are  being  effected. 


38  THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

It  is  a  moot  point  whether  tapping  the  oil  is  carried  out 
so  cheaply  as  at  Petrolia,  Ontario,  Canada.    As  the  name 
implies,  this  is  a  petroleum-yielding  district ;  but  the  harvest 
is  so  meagre,  the  wells  yielding  only  a  few  barrels  per  day, 
and  having  such  fleeting  lives,  as  to  compel  the  deposits 
to  be  exploited  upon  the  very  cheapest  lines  possible,  so  as 
to  render  the  industry,  such  as  it  is,  commercially  profitable. 
The  oil  is  found  at  a  depth  of  some  400  feet,  and  the  average 
cost  of  drilling  a  well  is  about  £20  ($100).     It  is  no  un- 
common circumstance  for  a  well  to  last  only  a  week,  the 
owner  commencing  to  draw  oil  on  the  Monday  morning, 
and  abandoning  the  well,  because  it  has  run  dry,  on  the 
following  Saturday  evening.     In  Central  America  a  well 
has  been  sunk  for  as  small  a  sum  as  £30  ($150),  and  a  rich 
yield  of  oil  struck ;  but  such  successes  are  very  few  and  far 
between,  and  certainly  contrast  vividly  with  the  expense 
attached  to  well-sinking  in  other  parts  of  the  world.     In 
the  Baku  oil-fields  the  average  cost  is  about  £5,000  ( $25,000) ; 
while  in  Galicia,  where  the  drills  have  to  be  carried  to  a 
depth  of  3,000  and  4,000  feet,  the  expenditure  under  this 
heading  ranges  from  £6,000  to  £8,000  ($30,000  to  $40,000). 
As  mentioned  elsewhere,  the  earliest  method  of  drawing 
oil  from  the  earth  was  to  dig  a  well  by  hand  labour,  upon 
precisely  similar  lines  to  those  followed  to-day  in  digging  a 
shallow  well  for  water  in  rural  districts.     Such  a  practice 
has  its  limitations.    While  sufficiently  remunerative  to  the 
syndicates  of  natives  in  Roumania,  Burmah,  and  elsewhere, 
the  present  needs  of  commerce  never  could  be  fulfilled  by 
such  methods.     In  the  eleventh  century  a  new  system  of 
boring  for  water  was  tried  in  the  French  province  of  Artois. 
Instead  of  sinking  a  well,  two  feet  or  more  in  diameter,  by 
manual  excavation,  the  principle  of  driving  a  bore  of  small 
diameter — say  eight  inches — was  attempted.    The  idea  was 
not  original,  because  the  broad  principle  had  been  practised 
in  China  for  centuries  previously.    A  suitable  heavy  tool 
was  attached  to  the  end  of  a  cable.    The  latter  was  passed 
over  an  elevated  roller.    The  tool  was  raised  to  its  maximum 
height  by  hauling  on  to  the  cable  passing  over  the  roller, 


THE  WELL-DRILLER  AND  HIS  TOOLS  39 

and  then  was  permitted  to  drop.  The  force  of  the  impact 
shattered  the  soil,  even  hard  rock,  immediately  beneath, 
and  this  debris  being  removed  by  water,  a  hole  was  gradually 
sunk.  The  experiment  in  Artois  proving  completely  suc- 
cessful, this  method  of  boring  for  water  came  into  general 
use,  wells  sunk  in  this  manner  being  known  as  "  artesian," 
from  Artois,  where  the  method  was  first  tried  and  proved 
in  Europe. 

This  combination  of  ancient  Chinese  and  French  ingenuity 
prevails  to  this  day,  as  is  well  known,  and  its  feasible  appli- 
cation to  drilling  for  oil  was  practised  first  by  Colonel  E.  L. 
Drake,  near  Titusville,  in  1859,  as  narrated  in  a  previous 
chapter.  Drake's  success  inaugurated  the  application  of 
artesian  boring  to  oil-drilling,  and  is  followed  to  this  day. 
The  one  notable  improvement  upon  the  Chino-French  idea 
has  been  the  utilization  of  steam  for  elevating  the  drilling 
tool,  instead  of  relying  upon  manual  or  animal  effort.  Of 
course,  in  consonance  with  the  advance  of  science  and 
mechanics,  many  improvements  in  details — the  fruits  of 
experience — have  been  incorporated,  but  the  fundamental 
principle  remains. 

The  design,  manufacture,  and  supply  of  appliances 
devoted  to  oil-well  drilling  has  developed  into  a  highly 
specialized  branch  of  industry.  In  this  particular  field  the 
United  States,  in  which  the  oil  industry  originated,  is  con- 
siderably in  advance  of  the  other  countries  of  the  world, 
although  British  firms  now  are  devoting  more  attention  to 
the  subject.  But  there  is  tremendous  leeway  to  make  up. 
The  American  plants,  from  their  approved  reliability  and 
efficiency,  are  in  use  the  whole  world  over,  one  firm  in  par- 
ticular— the  Oil  Well  Supply  Company,  of  Pittsburgh, 
Pennsylvania — having  penetrated  to  practically  every  oil- 
field in  the  world. 

When  the  boom  first  set  in,  after  Drake's  sensational 
discovery,  and  the  prospectors  penetrated  to  States  beyond 
Pennsylvania  in  search  of  oil,  one  fact  was  established 
readily.  This  was  what  might  be  described  as  the  imprac- 
ticability of  standardizing  the  size  and  type  of  plant  for  oil- 


40  THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

drilling.  What  was  eminently  adapted  to  one  field  was 
totally  unfitted  for  another:  the  geological  conditions 
influenced  the  question  to  an  extreme  degree.  Consequently, 
in  the  course  of  time,  the  equipment  became  divided  into 
distinctive  grades,  each  of  which  is  best  adapted  to  certain 
conditions.  Thus,  there  is  the  Pennsylvanian,  the  Canadian, 
the  Californian,  and  the  hydraulic  rotary  rigs  respectively ; 
while  in  Europe  individual  types  also  were  created,  such  as 
the  Russian  and  the  Galician  rigs .  Both  the  latter,  however, 
are  essentially  designed  for  deep  drilling. 

This  sub-standardization  has  proved  of  far-reaching  value 
to  the  petroleum  engineer.  In  the  determination  of  the 
plant  best  adapted  to  a  particular  field,  he  is  guided  by  the 
prevailing  geological  conditions.  For  instance,  the  Cali- 
fornian rig  is  regarded  as  the  most  suitable  for  extremely 
difficult  ground,  owing  to  the  peculiar  disposition  of  the 
oil-sands  in  the  State  after  which  it  is  named.  While  the 
rock  is  hard  and  dense,  the  problem  is  affected  more  particu- 
larly by  the  troublesome  caving  nature  of  the  sand  and 
clays  and  bands  of  shale.  The  angle,  or  dip,  of  the  strata 
also  renders  drilling  additionally  difficult.  On  the  other 
hand,  in  Mexico  the  oil  deposits  are  covered  by  strata  of 
marl  and  shale,  and  consequently  a  lighter  tool  is  able  to 
meet  the  situation.  Again,  when  the  well  has  to  be  sunk 
through  clay  and  quicksand,  quite  a  different  type  of  equip- 
ment is  demanded.  The  first  well  or  wells  of  a  new  country 
or  district  have  to  be  drilled  with  extreme  care,  in  order 
to  produce  a  true  geological  record  of  the  strata  of  earth 
traversed,  as  well  as  to  ascertain  the  amount  of  water  and 
gas  that  may  have  to  be  shut  out  or  dealt  with.  It  is  this 
datum  and  other  local  information  which  guide  the  engineer 
in  his  decision  of  the  system  of  drilling  most  favourably 
adapted  to  the  field  under  review.  Perhaps  the  most  popular 
pioneer  plant  of  the  present  day  is  the  Californian  rig. 

The. boring  equipment  comprises  the  rig,  machinery, 
drilling  and  fishing  tools,  and  casing  or  piping,  which  offers 
the  channel  through  which  the  oil  issues  from  the  earth .  The 
"  rig  "  refers  only  to  the  structure,  with  its  foundations  of 


THE  WELL-DRILLER  AND  HIS  TOOLS  41 

heavy  timbers,  and  the  wheels  and  reels  on  which  are  carried 
the  lines  or  cables,  to  which  are  attached  the  drilling  tools 
proper.  A  derrick  and  rig  for  foreign  fields  are  frequently 
built  of  steel,  because  wood  has  a  very  short  life  in  certain 
countries,  particularly  in  the  tropics,  where  the  white  ant 
is  so  troublesome.  In  such  countries  as  Peru,  where  there 
is  an  absence  of  moisture,  wood  is  imported  for  this  pur- 
pose, and  lasts  for  years. 

The  height  of  the  tower  or  derrick  varies  according  to 
the  type  of  plant  and  the  depth  of  boring.  With  the 
modern  rotary  equipment  there  is  a  tendency  to  have  a 
derrick  100  feet  or  more  in  height  when  using  either  the 
combination  or  the  hydraulic  rotary  system.  This  practice 
is  followed  with  a  view  to  extracting  from  the  well  a  greater 
number  of  joints  of  drill-pipe  in  one  length,  so  as  to  save 
labour  in  disconnecting  and  connecting  when  operating. 

The  machinery  includes  the  boilers  and  engine  for  driving 
the  tools.  These  vary  in  horse-power  according  to  re- 
quirements, but  both  are  designed  especially  for  the  work. 
Early  experience  speedily  revealed  the  fact  that  certain 
additions  to  an  ordinary  engine  were  necessary  to  adapt  it 
to  the  peculiar  duty,  owing  to  the  unusual  conditions  which 
were  encountered. 

The  drilling  tools  are  many  and  various,  being  designed 
to  work  with  the  highest  efficiency  in  different  soils.  While 
the  percussion  system  is  that  generally  adopted  in  oil-well 
sinking,  the  percussive  action  is  carried  out  upon  a  prin- 
ciple widely  divergent  from  that  invariably  associated  with 
such  tools  in  other  cases.  The  drill,  working  on  a  cable  or 
rope,  is  permitted  to  drop  with  the  force  of  gravity,  with 
sufficient  fall  to  insure  that  a  straight  bore  is  driven, 
and  that  it  shall  strike  the  bottom  of  the  hole  fairly  and 
squarely.  The  impact  shatters  and  pulverizes  the  surface 
of  the  rock  or  other  material  into  a  slurry,  which  is  brought 
quickly  to  the  surface  by  a  bailer,  or  what  is  called  a  "  sand- 
pump."  In  oil-well  sinking  it  has  been  found  that  unlimited 
rebound  gives  the  most  satisfactory  results.  The  form  of 
drill  itself  also  varies.  The  cutting  edge  may  be  of  circular 


42  THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

section — the  periphery  forming  the  blade — and  a  hollow 
centre,  or  it  may  have  a  star-shaped  head,  and  so  on,  this 
feature  depending  upon  the  character  of  the  earth  to  be 
penetrated. 

The  bit  itself,  although  it  does  the  actual  biting  or 
chugging,  is  only  one  unit  in  the  boring  equipment.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  the  "  string  of  tools,"  to  quote  the  driller's 
term— it  is  used  with  all  cable  systems,  being  attached  to 
the  free  end  of  the  cable,  and  thus  accomplishing  the  actual 
drilling  work — is  somewhat  formidable.  The  drilling  bit, 
varying  from  4^  to  6  feet  in  length,  is  at  the  extreme  free 
end  of  the  string.  Above  this  comes  the  auger-stem,  16  to 
48  feet  long,  into  which  the  drill  is  screwed.  Next  come 
the  drilling  "  jars,"  but  these  are  not  used  as  a  rule  until 
the  hole  has  attained  a  depth  of  150  feet.  These  resemble 
two  great  links  of  a  chain.  Following  these  come  the  sinker 
and  rope-socket.  The  rope-socket  is  designed  according 
to  the  style  of  the  rope  and  the  type  of  the  drilling  plant. 
Even  this  item  varies  widely  in  pattern.  The  total  weight 
of  the  string  of  tools  is  from  if  to  2  tons,  of  which  the  bit 
or  chisel  alone  represents  more  than  a  ton  when  large-sized 
bits  are  being  used  in  holes  of  large  diameter. 

The  "  string  "  is  not  lifted  to  the  top  of  the  derrick  for 
each  stroke.  Instead  its  elevation  is  fixed.  The  cable 
extends  vertically  from  the  borehole  to  the  tower  of  the 
derrick,  to  pass  over  a  pulley  and  to  descend  and  be  coiled 
round  a  reel.  There  is  a  seesawing  or  oscillating  member, 
known  as  a  "  walking-beam,"  which  recalls  that  used  in 
the  Newcomen  beam-engine.  The  "  string  "  is  attached  to 
the  end  of  this  member  entering  the  derrick,  the  connection, 
of  a  grip  nature,  called  a  "  temper  screw,"  permitting  the 
rope  to  be  paid  out  as  the  well  sinks  deeper  and  deeper. 
When  this  end  of  the  beam  is  elevated  naturally,  it  lifts 
the  string,  and  when  it  is  depressed,  it  permits  the  latter  to 
descend  freely  and  quickly,  enabling  the  chisel  to  strike 
the  bottom  of  the  bore  with  the  maximum  impact,  and  to 
rebound  before  the  succeeding  rising  stroke  takes  place. 

As  may  be  supposed,  the  continuous  smashing  or  pulver- 


A    HUGE   CHISEL    FOR   A    RUSSIAN    OIL-WELL. 
The  tool,  weighing  3,125  Ibs.,  was  forged  to  bore  a  hole  25  inches  in  diameter. 


To  face  page  42. 


THE  WELL-DRILLER  AND  HIS  TOOLS  43 

izing  action  of  the  drill  dulls  the  cutting  edge  of  the  tool, 
especially  when  the  formation  is  hard,  although  the  drill 
is  made  of  the  finest  and  specially-made  steel.  Periodically 
the  whole  string  of  tools  has  to  be  withdrawn  from  the  hole 
to  permit  the  bit  to  be  removed  for  sharpening,  another  being 
substituted  in  the  meantime.  Consequently,  the  black- 
smith's shop  is  a  busy  corner  of  the  plant,  because  here  is 
imparted  that  keen  edge  to  the  chisel  which  is  essential  to 
insure  progress  in  "  making  hole,"  as  it  is  termed.  The  life 
of  the  cutting  edge  varies  considerably,  naturally  being 
shorter  when  driving  against  hard  rock  than  when  chugging 
its  way  through  soft  material. 

As  the  drill  strikes  and  pulverizes  the  earth  at  the  bottom 
of  the  hole,  the  debris  has  to  be  removed.  This  is  done  with 
water  and  a  sand-pump.  In  the  hydraulic  rotary  system 
the  method  is  somewhat  different.  The  debris  is  removed 
automatically  as  the  drilling  proceeds,  by  continuous 
pumping  or  jetting  of  water.  The  detritus  rises  to  the  sur- 
face with  the  water,  so  that  there  is  no  accumulation  in  the 
bottom  of  the  hole. 

Under  certain  geological  conditions  the  hydraulic  rotary, 
instead  of  the  percussive  drilling,  method  has  come  into 
favour.  This  system,  so  called,  is  only  practicable  where 
water  may  be  used  satisfactorily,  and  may  be  obtained 
easily  and  cheaply.  The  principle  is  really  what  is  known 
as  "  mud-flush,"  because  in  drilling  through  sand  formations 
mud-laden  fluid  is  used  to  seal  the  sides  of  the  borehole 
temporarily,  and  thereby  prevent  the  caving-in  or  collapse 
of  the  walls,  prior  to  the  insertion  of  the  necessary  permanent 
casing.  This  system  is  not  recommended  for  drilling  in  a 
new  area  the  exact  geological  conditions  of  which  are  not 
known,  and  where  it  is  desired  to  obtain  such  data.  The 
hydraulic  rotary  method  is  preferred  by  many  engineers 
for  the  first  part  of  the  drilling,  but  usually  the  last  sections 
— the  penetration  of  the  oil  or  gas  sands — are  completed 
with  percussion  tools.  The  hydraulic  rotary  system  is  fre- 
quently used  as  an  auxiliary  to  the  cable,  and  vice  versa,  and 
for  this  reason  is  generally  known  as  a  "  combination  rig." 


44  THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

As  the  bore  is  driven  it  requires  to  be  lined.  For  this 
purpose  iron  and  steel  casing  is  used.  The  lining  not  only 
provides  an  easy  passage  for  the  movement  of  the  oil,  and 
prevents  the  wearing  away  of  the  walls  of  the  borehole,  as 
well  as  removing  all  possibility  of  its  becoming  choked, 
but  at  the  same  time  it  completely  prevents  the  incursion 
of  the  oil-driller's  worst  enemy — water.  As  the  bore 
descends,  the  chances  are  a  thousand  to  one  that  a  sub- 
terranean spring  or  pocket  of  water  will  be  penetrated. 
If  this  be  not  held  in  check,  subsequent  difficulties  and 
labour  will  be  augmented  considerably,  because  the  oil  will 
have  to  be  separated  from  the  water.  In  some  instances  a 
single  lining  is  adequate  to  secure  protection  against  this 
foe,  but  in  others  two  or  more  pipes  may  be  required,  dis- 
posed in  telescopic  fashion — that  is,  one  tube  within  the 
other — the  annular  spaces  between  the  pipes  being  reduced 
to  the  minimum. 

The  tubes  are  inserted  as  the  bore  is  driven,  each  addi- 
tional unit  being  screwed  to  that  already  in  the  ground. 
The  pipe  is  held  vertically  within  the  derrick  by  means  of 
a  cable  or  casing-line,  to  insure  that  the  alignment  is  abso- 
lutely correct,  because  the  bore  must  be  quite  plumb. 
Ponderous  chain  tongs— large  editions  of  the  chain  grips 
used  extensively  by  plumbers — are  employed  in  the  pipe- 
joining  task.  The  upper  end  of  the  sunken  section  of  the 
casing  is  held  in  position  by  means  of  a  headpiece  of  large 
size  and  heavy  weight,  fitted  with  projections  resembling 
horizontal  arms.  When  sunk  into  the  ground,  these  arms 
obviate  any  tendency  of  the  casing  already  in  position  in 
the  borehole  to  twist  or  turn  while  a  new  length  is  being 
added.  When  the  section  is  screwed  home,  drilling  is  re- 
sumed, the  tube  sinking  lower  and  lower  as  the  drill  cuts 
more  deeply  into  the  earth,  until  the  casing  has  descended 
to  such  a  depth  as  to  necessitate  another  length  being  con- 
nected, when  the  cycle  of  operations  is  repeated,  and  so 
on,  until  the  oil  is  reached. 

Sometimes,  instead  of  the  tubular  casing  being  inserted 
in  the  wake  of  the  drill  in  the  circular  borehole  provided, 


THE  WELL-DRILLER  AND  HIS  TOOLS  45 

the  column  of  pipe  is  driven.  For  this  purpose  what  is 
known  as  a  "  drive-pipe  "  is  used.  This  practice  is  adopted 
generally  when  a  well  is  being  sunk  through  strata  the 
geological  formation  of  which  is  not  known  with  any  degree 
of  certainty,  because  it  is  safer.  It  is  invariably  practised 
when  sinking  the  first  well  upon  a  new  field.  The  experi- 
ence gathered  in  driving  the  initial  borehole  is  invaluable, 
because  it  enables  succeeding  wells  upon  the  same  oil- 
field to  be  driven  with  the  most  satisfactory  tools  and 
lined  with  suitable  pipe,  in  order  to  complete  the  task  with 
the  minimum  of  time  and  expense. 

Boring  by  freely  falling  tools,  while  highly  satisfactory 
when  sinking  through  hard  formations,  is  useless  when  soft 
material,  such  as  quicksand  and  clay,  has  to  be  penetrated. 
For  the  latter  conditions  the  rotary  hydraulic  system  is 
employed.  The  principle  is  the  rotation  of  a  column  of 
pipe — drill-pipe — the  lower  end  of  which  is  provided  with 
a  cutting  bit.  Water  mixed  with  mud  is  forced  down 
inside  the  pipe  by  means  of  a  pump,  passes  under  the  lower 
end  of  the  drill-pipe,  and  then  upwards  between  the  outer 
surface  of  the  pipe  and  the  wall  of  the  borehole.  In  so 
doing  it  tends  to  float  the  pipe,  thereby  preventing  contact 
with  the  wall  of  the  borehole.  In  this  way  the  rotation  of 
the  pipe  is  facilitated,  while  at  the  same  time  the  flush 
carries  away  the  cuttings  of  the  tool  in  the  water  and  on 
the  exposed  wall  of  the  bore,  thereby  preventing  the  latter 
from  caving  in.  This  process  is  used  almost  exclusively 
in  the  States  of  Texas  and  Louisiana,  owing  to  the  amount 
of  sand  and  light  clay,  while  it  has  an  extensive  use  upon 
the  oil-fields  of  Mexico,  where  similar  conditions  prevail. 

When  the  oil-prospectors,  in  their  desire  to  win  oil  from 
the  earth,  ventured  to  tap  the  deposits  below  the  Pacific  sea- 
bed off  Summerland,  California,  they  were  faced  with  a 
pretty  problem — the  complete  exclusion  of  the  sea-water 
from  the  borehole.  The  venture  was  certainly  fascinating 
but  highly  speculative.  The  first  well  was  sunk  in  1896, 
a  low  wharf  being  laid  out  from  the  shore  over  the  surf,  to 
a  point  beyond  low-water  mark.  Although  the  conditions 


46  THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

were  somewhat  unusual,  the  initial  efforts  revealed  the  fact 
that  the  task  did  not  present  any  abnormal  problems, 
owing  to  the  even  configuration  of  the  sea-bed. 

The  first  step  is  the  provision  of  a  light  wharf,  for  com- 
munication between  the  well  and  the  shore,  and  the  passage 
of  such  materials  as  are  required. 

In  sinking  the  well,  what  is  known  as  a  "  conductor  "  is 
first  placed.  This  comprises  a  length  of  oil-well  casing,  of 
larger  diameter  than  what  would  be  employed  were  the 
well  being  sunk  on  dry  land.  Inferior  casing  often  is  used 
for  this  purpose,  and,  if  the  preliminary  borings  have 
proved  that  no  large  boulders  are  likely  to  be  encountered 
when  driving  through  the  sea-sand,  the  casing  is  not  fitted 
with  a  shoe.  The  diameter  of  this  casing  varies  according 
to  the  depth  of  water.  When  the  latter  ranges  from  15  to 
25  feet,  9|-inch  casing  is  used.  Two  lengths  are  joined 
together,  giving  a  total  length  of  casing  ranging  from  30  to 
45  feet,  the  length  being  such  that,  when  the  bottom  end  of 
the  casing  is  resting  upon  the  sand,  the  upper  end  is  brought 
near  the  roof  of  the  derrick. 

Setting  this  conductor  is  the  most  critical  operation.  It 
is  held  suspended  by  the  sand-line  in  an  upright  position, 
with  the  lower  end  about  one  foot  distant  from  the  sea- 
bed. The  driller  waits  until  the  agitation  of  the  water  is 
practically  negligible.  At  the  psychological  moment  the 
conductor  is  dropped  suddenly.  Upon  touching  the  sand 
it  is  once  more  plumbed  to  see  that  it  is  vertical,  and  then 
stays  are  nailed  upon  the  floor  of  the  derrick  around  the 
conductor,  to  keep  it  in  that  position.  The  drilling-stem, 
fitted  with  a  driving-head  and  clamps,  is  run  into  the  con- 
ductor, and  driven  into  the  sand  as  far  as  it  will  proceed 
with  safety.  The  clamps  are  removed,  and  the  drill  is  set 
to  work.  As  drilling  proceeds,  the  conductor  is  sent  down- 
wards at  frequent  intervals,  until  it  has  worked  through  the 
sand  and  has  penetrated  the  clay  beneath.  By  this  time 
the  upper  end  of  the  conductor  has  been  brought  level  with 
the  floor  of  the  derrick,  and,  there  being  no  further  need 
to  hold  it  in  position,  the  stays  on  the  flooring  of  the  derrick 


GENERAL   VIEW   OF   A    ROTARY    DRILLING   PLANT. 


Br  courtesy  of  the  Oil  ll'eit  Supply  Company. 

DIGGING  A   "SUMP"    ON    A   TRINIDAD   OIL-FIELD. 
A  pond  is  provided  near  the  well  to  receive  the  oil  directly  it  is  struck. 

Tcjacepage  46. 


THE  WELL-DRILLER  AND  HIS  TOOLS  47 

are  knocked  away.  The  conductor  is  then  driven  farther 
into  the  sea-bed,  until  the  top  is  only  a  few  inches  above 
the  water.  By  this  time  it  will  probably  have  entered  well 
into  the  clay  bed.  The  sea  is  now  deprived  of  all  oppor- 
tunity to  enter  the  borehole,  unless  there  be  subsequent 
carelessness  or  incompetence  upon  the  part  of  the  driller. 

Directly  the  conductor  has  reached  the  "  safe  "  position, 
the  drilling  bit  is  changed,  the  next  smaller  size  being  used. 
In  driving  the  drill,  it  is  imperative  that  the  casing  should 
follow  immediately  behind  it.  If  it  does  not,  the  tools, 
securing  an  increased  swing,  are  apt  to  cut  a  hole  of  greater 
diameter  than  is  required  to  receive  the  casing.  In  this 
event  there  is  the  risk  of  a  cavity  being  formed,  which  in 
time  the  sea- water  above  will  find  and  take,  thereby  probably 
gaining  entrance  to  the  oil-sands  below.  Should  this  occur, 
not  only  the  well,  but  the  whole  oil  territory  immediately 
in  the  vicinity,  will  be  ruined.  For  this  reason  drilling  into 
the  sea-bed  has  to  be  carried  out  with  care,  but  otherwise, 
after  the  setting  of  the  conductor,  the  method  of  sinking 
does  not  differ  widely  from  those  practised  upon  dry  land. 

The  successful  driving  of  the  first  well  into  the  Pacific  sea- 
bed precipitated  a  scramble  for  water  frontages,  from  which 
the  necessary  wharves  could  be  run  out  into  the  water. 
Well-sinking  went  forward  with  remarkable  zeal,  some  of 
the  more  adventurous  pushing  out  to  a  point  where  there  is 
about  25  feet  of  water  at  low  tide.  Four  years  after  the  first 
bore  had  been  driven  305  wells  had  been  sunk  into  the 
sea-bed,  each  of  which  was  yielding  up  to  sixty  barrels  of 
oil  per  day.  The  lives  of  some  were  extremely  brief,  the 
borehole  being  abandoned  almost  as  soon  as  it  had  been  com- 
pleted, owing  to  the  indifferent  yield.  In  fact,  within  about 
forty  months  fifty-nine  wells  had  been  driven  and  abandoned. 

The  cost  of  a  drilling  plant  for  sinking  an  oil-well  varies 
considerably.  It  depends  upon  the  depth  to  which  the 
borehole  has  to  be  taken,  as  well  as  the  local  conditions. 
The  pipes  or  casing  represent  a  very  costly  item,  particularly 
in  the  case  of  a  deep  well,  so  that  the  expenditure  may  easily 
range  from  £500  to  £10,000  ($2,500  to  $50,000). 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE  "  OIL-BOOMERS  "  AND  OIL  RUSHES 

"  MORE  money  has  been  put  into  the  ground  than  ever  was 
taken  out  of  it."  This  is  a  trite  saying,  and  one,  reflecting 
upon  the  billions  of  tons  of  oil  which  have  been  extracted 
from  Mother  Earth  and  the  enormous  value  thereof,  might 
feel  disposed  to  argue  that  here  at  least  proverb  is  fallacious. 
But,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  never  was  the  truth  of  the  adage 
demonstrated  so  powerfully  as  in  connection  with  oil.  In 
this  connection  the  snares  and  robberies  of  the  "  wild- 
catter "  are  not  taken  into  consideration,  since  in  the 
majority  of  these  cases  no  attempt  is  made  to  put  money 
into  the  ground;  it  runs  into  the  pocket  of  the  schemer. 

Striking  for  oil,  in  the  strictest  sense  of  the  word,  is  one 
of  the  biggest  gambles  in  the  world.  The  seeker  is  merely 
dipping  his  hand  into  a  huge  lucky-bag ;  he  may  draw  a  prize, 
but  he  probably  will  draw  a  blank.  Often,  if  he  does  ap- 
parently shake  hands  with  Fortune,  he  is  just  as  likely  to 
regret  his  luck,  since  the  "  strike  "  may  prove  more  costly 
than  utter  failure. 

It  is  the  speculative  character  of  the  work  which  makes 
such  an  appeal  to  the  American.  He  is  a  born  gambler, 
delights  in  juggling  with  Fortune;  with  him  speculation  is 
second  nature.  In  the  quest  for  oil  h'e  has  unlimited  capacity 
to  gratify  his  desires  to  become  rich  quickly.  This  is  the 
main  reason  why  to-day  the  United  States  occupies  the 
foremost  position  among  the  oil-producing  countries  of  the 
world.  Had  similar  men  been  found  in  other  countries 
possessed  of  rich  deposits  of  this  mineral,  and  been  given 
scope  to  work  upon  the  principle  which  has  obtained  in 
America,  the  oil  output  of  the  world  would  have  been  twice 
or  thrice  what  it  is  at  the  moment.  The  oil  industry  was 
48 


THE  "  OIL-BOOMERS  "  AND  OIL  RUSHES        49 

born  in  the  United  States,  was  developed  there,  and  is 
represented  in  its  highest  degree  of  perfection  in  that 
country. 

When  Colonel  Drake  struck  oil  on  Oil  Creek  in  1859,  ^e 
precipitated  one  of  the  wildest  rushes  for  wealth  on  record. 
The  countryside  was  a  dense  forest,  cleared  here  and  there 
to  permit  tiny  humdrum  communities  to  exist  when  he 
launched  his  enterprise.  While  the  country  throbbed  and 
swayed  with  the  news,  the  boomers  rushed  to  the  spot. 
Within  a  few  months  the  virgin  country  around  Drake's 
well,  which  scarcely  had  known  the  imprint  of  human  feet, 
was  overrun  like  an  ant-hill.  Claims  were  staked  off  in 
mad  haste.  The  timber  which  was  brought  down  in 
clearing  was  lopped  up  to  provide  material  for  derricks, 
which  rose  like  magic.  The  oil-boomers  did  not  confine 
their  efforts  to  Oil  Creek.  They  perforated  the  banks  on 
either  side  of  French  Creek  and  ihe  Allegheny  River  as  well. 
A  tract  of  virgin  forest  to-day  was  a  humming  town  of 
tents  to-morrow.  There  was  no  staying  the  stampede. 
Drillers,  investors,  financiers,  and  land  agents,  were  engaged 
in  a  wild  melee.  Poor  men  at  the  rising  of  the  sun  were 
millionaires  before  Old  Sol  set  again,  and  again  were  penni- 
less when  the  dawn  broke  once  more.  Discretion  was 
thrown  to  the  four  winds.  Fortune  was  in  a  benignant 
mood,  was  bestowing  her  favours  on  one  and  all  promiscu- 
ously, and  none  pondered  to  reflect  how  long  the  goddess 
would  show  her  open  hand. 

The  ambitious,  budding  millionaires  suffered  from  one 
serious  disadvantage.  They  knew  little  or  nothing  about 
the  difficulties  and  uncertainties  of  boring.  It  was  the 
early  adventurers  without  resources  but  able  to  maintain 
a  cool  head  amid  the  tremendous  excitement  who  made 
money.  They  refrained  from  well-sinking  upon  haphazard 
methods,  but  devoted  their  energies  to  mastering  the  in- 
tricacies of  this  peculiar  art.  In  a  short  time  they  became 
proficient  drillers.  As  the  boom  increased,  the  services  of 
these  comparatively  few  men  became  keenly  demanded, 
and  they  commanded  very  high  wages.  Financiers  and 

4 


50  THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

capitalists  provided  them  with  constant  employment,  and 
being  called  upon  to  drill  in  all  sorts  and  conditions  of 
places,  and  encountering  obstacles  of  infinite  variety,  they 
were  able  to  measure  the  difficulties  and  uncertainties  of 
the  task,  and  incidentally  amassed  considerable  and  in- 
valuable experience. 

In  time  the  driller  tired  of  the  everyday  routine  and  the 
receipt  of  a  certain  wage  for  his  brains  and  skill.  He  longed 
to  become  his  own  master,  to  have  the  opportunity  of 
becoming  numbered  among  the  rich  men  in  the  oil  world. 
He  became  thrifty.  He  reduced  his  living  expenses  to  the 
minimum,  denied  himself  various  luxuries,  toiled  hard  and 
long.  Every  cent  he  could  spare  he  put  into  the  bank. 
He  became  obsessed  with  one  idea — to  obtain  a  sufficiency 
of  ready  cash  to  purchase  a  drilling  outfit  and  to  sink  a  well 
upon  his  own  responsibility. 

This  spirit  prevails  to  this  day.  A  workman  only  drills 
for  somebody  else  at  good  wages  until  he  has  accumulated  a 
little  nest-egg.  Then  he  sallies  forth  to  tempt  Fortune. 
This  is  the  reason  why,  at  the  moment,  American  drillers 
are  difficult  to  obtain,  and  why  foreigners  are  being  more 
widely  employed  for  the  work.  The  Hungarian,  Rou- 
manian, or  Italian,  is  not  so  susceptible  to  the  virus  of  the 
oil-speculation  fever;  he  cherishes  no  ambition  to  become 
an  oil-king.  This  type  of  labourer  prosecutes  his  task 
diligently  day  by  day  until  he  has  amassed  enough  to  spend 
the  evening  of  his  life  in  comfort  in  his  homeland. 

The  speculating  American  oil-driller  is  generally  content 
to  venture  with  a  capital  of  $2,000  (£400).  He  makes 
a  bargain  with  the  manufacturers  of  the  drilling  plant. 
Should  his  capital  be  sufficient,  he  will  purchase  the  installa- 
tion outright.  Otherwise  he  will  undertake  to  pay  for  it 
by  instalments  as  his  prosperity  increases;  or,  and  this  is 
sometimes  the  case,  the  manufacturing  firm  will  share  in 
the  risk  by  giving  the  purchaser  extended  credit.  In  reality 
the  latter  incurs  little  risk.  If  the  venture  fails  the  driller 
is  conscientious,  and  will  spare  no  effort  to  wipe  out  the 
debt,  knowing  fully  well  that,  unless  he  meets  his  obligations, 


THE  "OIL-BOOMERS"  AND  OIL  RUSHES         51 

he  stands  a  very  indifferent  chance  of  securing  another 
outfit  with  which  to  undertake  his  next  plunge. 

These  preliminaries  completed  satisfactorily,  the  specula- 
tive individual  casts  around  for  a  promising  spot  on  which 
to  drill.  If  he  is  in  a  proved  oil-producing  district,  his 
prospects  are  distinctly  rosy.  Having  made  his  selection, 
he  approaches  the  farmer,  or  owner  of  the  land,  for  per- 
mission to  drill  a  well.  The  latter  is  just  as  anxious  as  the 
driller  to  make  money  quickly,  and  he  listens  attentively  to 
the  proposal,  which  is  that,  in  return  for  permission  to  drill, 
the  owner  shall  receive  a  certain  share,  virtually  a  royalty, 
per  barrel  upon  the  oil  obtained.  As  a  rule  the  proprietor 
readily  agrees  to  the  suggestion.  He  incurs  no  liability,  and 
if  the  driller  draws  a  blank  no  harm  will  have  been  inflicted 
upon  the  property.  Sometimes,  especially  when  the  coveted 
spot  is  in  a  rich  oil-yielding  territory,  the  farmer  demands 
more  than  a  royalty.  He  himself  has  become  inoculated 
with  the  speculating  virus  to  a  dangerous  degree.  The 
driller  must  pay  a  premium  for  rights  to  drill,  in  addition  to 
the  royalty  upon  the  oil  produced. 

Often  the  farmer  goes  farther  to  improve  the  dazzling 
opportunity.  After  one  driller  has  made  a  proposal,  the 
farmer  sedulously  circulates  stories  of  the  oil  wealth  existing 
upon  his  property,  accompanied  with  hints  that  he  is  willing 
to  entertain  offers  to  drill.  This  story  generally  succeeds  in 
its  avowed  purpose.  Other  speculative  drillers  have  their 
gambling  instincts  fired,  and  lively  bidding  ensues  for  prior 
drilling  rights,  the  concession  being  extended  ultimately  to 
the  one  who  offers  the  highest  premium. 

Speculative  oil-drilling  under  such  circumstances  is  ren- 
dered an  additional  gamble,  and  requires  far  more  capita1,, 
the  greater  part  of  which  probably  is  expended  before  a 
single  piece  of  the  plant  is  brought  on  the  ground.  The 
farmer  is  canny.  He  is  fully  aware  that  drilling  may  prove 
abortive,  and  consequently  he  demands  the  premium  in 
cash  in  advance.  This  bargaining  between  the  driller  and 
the  property  owner  has  reached  an  acute  degree.  The 
humble  gambler  refrains  from  venturing  upon  such  land, 


52  THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

preferring  to  treat  with  one  who  is  content  to  receive  a 
royalty  purely  and  simply  in  the  event  of  success  being 
attained. 

The  driller  does  not  let  the  grass  grow  under  his  feet. 
His  plant  is  brought  up,  and  is  in  working  order  within  a 
short  time.  The  drills  are  kept  going  the  livelong  day,  and 
often  night  as  well.  The  situation  is  not  without  its  excite- 
ment, comedy,  and  tragedy.  Labour  must  be  employed, 
and  the  man  of  little  capital  anxiously  watches  his  drills 
sink  deeper  and  deeper  and  his  reserve  of  cash  grow  smaller 
and  smaller.  Finally  he  either  strikes  oil  or  reaches  the 
end  of  his  resources.  He  has  sunk  his  tools  to  a  certain 
depth,  but  has  not  touched  any  petroleum.  Yet  he  is 
confident  that  it  exists,  such  is  his  unquenchable  optimism. 
But  he  cannot  go  another  foot  without  money.  He  at- 
tempts to  find  it.  He  approaches  kindred  spirits  who  are 
keen  on  oil,  possess  the  money,  but  will  not  drill.  Possibly 
his  mission  is  a  failure,  in  which  event  he  disposes  of  his 
outfit  for  what  it  will  realize,  and  returns  to  his  former 
occupation — toiling  for  someone  else.  Often,  however,  he 
will  prove  successful  in  his  solicitations.  A  friend  in  need 
will  finance  him  another  two,  three,  or  five  hundred  feet, 
but  on  terms.  More  bargaining  ensues,  and  another  slice 
in  the  speculator's  possible  fortune  is  cut.  However,  he  is 
enabled  to  proceed,  and  to  him  that  is  everything. 

Perseverance  perhaps  brings  its  reward .  Oil  is  struck,  and 
in  paying  quantities.  Speculation  is  satisfied,  although  pos- 
sibly the  ardour  becomes  damped  somewhat  when  the  gambler 
realizes  how  much  he  has  to  pay  out  to  his  coadjutors  before 
he  is  entitled  to  a  penny.  If  the  yield  is  a  big  one,  he  will 
regard  his  share  with  complacency;  if  not,  he  will  sell  out 
his  share  for  what  it  will  fetch,  recouping  his  capital  and  a 
little  extra.  With  this  sum  he  will  depart  to  pastures  new 
to  make  another  attempt,  determined  this  time  to  dispense 
with  outside  financial  assistance,  unless,  as  before,  necessity 
compels  otherwise. 

Some  of  these  men  go  on  from  year  to  year,  and  wander 
from  one  part  of  the  country  to  another,  never  making  a  big 


THE  "  OIL-BOOMERS  "  AND  OIL  RUSHES        53 

strike  or  materially  adding  to  their  fortunes,  because  of 
the  heavy  liabilities,  in  the  form  of  shares,  incurred  with 
other  interests.  If  a  man  is  able  to  strike  oil  without 
enlisting  additional  financial  aid,  he  has  merely  the  royalty 
to  pay,  and  stands  in  an  advantageous  position.  The  owner 
of  the  property  not  only  will  be  willing  to  permit  further 
boring,  but,  to  secure  a  bigger  return,  will  forego  the 
royalty  in  order  to  receive  a  50  per  cent,  share  in  the  well, 
and  will  contribute  one-half  of  the  expenditure. 

Many  interesting  stories  pertaining  to  this  speculation 
may  be  related.  One  gentleman,  who  is  now  engaged  with 
the  Standard  Oil  Company,  was  sitting  in  his  office  one 
morning  when  a  dishevelled,  dead-beat  driller,  his  overalls 
saturated  with  mud,  sought  financial  assistance.  He  was 
certain  to  make  a  strike  within  the  next  forty-eight  hours 
if  he  only  could  get  the  money  to  restart  his  drill.  It  was 
his  first  speculation,  and  he  appeared  to  feel  acutely  his 
unremunerative  investment.  He  had  approached  other 
possible  sources,  but  his  entreaties  had  been  in  vain.  My 
friend,  ever  ready  to  indulge  in  a  gamble,  offered  the  money 
necessary  to  keep  the  drill  going  for  a  week,  accepting  the 
speculator's  own  terms.  The  man  went  off  delighted. 
Within  forty-eight  hours  he  tapped  the  oil.  It  was  not  a 
big  yield  as  flows  go  nowadays  in  connection  with  the  oil- 
wells,  but  the  speculator  was  satisfied.  The  two  shareholders 
finally  sold  out  their  holdings,  and  the  driller  went  off  to 
another  district,  where  he  was  far  more  fortunate.  In  the 
oil-yielding  districts  of  the  United  States  there  are  hundreds 
of  men  who  have  won  their  fortunes  by  backing  the  specula- 
tive driller  in  this  manner. 

In  another  instance  a  small  speculator  met  with  fortune 
in  his  first  attempt.  His  well  was  a  paying  one,  but  the 
speculating  fever  had  eaten  so  deeply  into  his  soul  that  he 
dreamed  greater  conquests.  Fortune  was  on  his  side,  he 
reasoned,  because  of  his  success  at  the  first  attempt.  So  he 
sold  out  his  well  for  $50,000  (£10,000),  and  commenced 
drilling  in  another  district.  This  time  he  met  misfortune. 
Within  a  few  weeks  the  whole  of  his  capital  had  vanished, 


54  THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

and   he  was  compelled  to  resume  drilling  at   a  weekly 
wage. 

Nowadays  owing  to  the  greater  expense  attending 
drilling,  and  the  heavier  risks  which  are  incurred,  the  specu- 
lator seldom  plunges  alone.  The  more  popular  tendency 
is  to  form  small  syndicates,  so  as  to  divide  the  responsibility 
and  the  expense.  This  method  has  an  additional  advantage. 
Instead  of  money  being  expended  upon  outside  labour,  the 
members  divide  the  tasks  among  themselves,  working,  in 
fact,  upon  the  co-operative  principle,  and  dividing  the  profits 
in  equal  or  other  proportions,  according  to  the  extent  of 
their  financial  contributions. 

The  average  oil-field  is  a  veritable  speculation  in  another 
sense  of  the  word.  It  suffers  from  the  disability  of  a  brief 
existence.  It  may  yield  continuously  for  years,  and  then 
suddenly  give  out.  The  result  is  that  oil  colonies  rise, 
flourish,  and  die  within  a  handful  of  years.  Rarely  does  a 
town  born  of  the  oil-boomers  have  a  permanent  existence. 
Its  prosperity  depends  upon  oil ;  it  is  brought  into  being ;  it 
flourishes  upon  the  mineral ;  and  its  passing  coincides  with 
the  exhaustion  of  the  oil  deposits.  One  may  search  the 
maps  of  Pennsylvania  to-day  for  Pithole  City,  but  the 
quest  will  be  in  vain,  because  it  is  no  more.  But  in  1865 
Pithole  City  was  the  most  famous  spot  in  the  newly-proved 
oil  country.  Its  business  was  of  such  proportions  as  to 
demand  a  post-office  second  only  in  size  in  the  State  to  that 
at  Philadelphia.  The  oil  in  the  vicinity  gave  out,  and  the 
residents,  whose  existence  depended  upon  petroleum, 
moved  elsewhere.  The  deserted  buildings  crumbled  into 
decay  or  were  demolished,  grass  once  more  grew  in  the 
streets,  and  finally  agriculture  claimed  the  deserted  property. 
Pithole  City  of  1865  is  a  farm  in  1914;  not  a  vestige  of  the 
former  community  or  frenzied  activity  remains. 

When  an  oil-boom  sets  in,  all  discretion  vanishes.  The 
speculating  fever  secures  such  a  firm  hold  that  it  completes 
its  ravages  as  surely  as  an  epidemic.  Land  soars  to  pro- 
hibitive prices;  companies  of  the  most  doubtful  character 
are  created  every  minute,  99  per  cent,  of  which  would  be 


THE  "  OIL-BOOMERS  "  AND  OIL  RUSHES         55 

stillborn  if  the  public  kept  its  head.  During  the  Texan 
oil-boom  land  which  failed  to  attract  $2,  or  8s.,  an  acre 
as  ranching  country  assumed  immense  value  because  of  its 
problematical  oil  content.  One  tract  for  which  the  owner 
would  have  accepted  $5,  or  a  sovereign,  per  acre  pre- 
viously, changed  hands  for  $10,000,  or  £2,000,  and  doubled 
again  in  value  in  twelve  hours.  In  another  instance  an 
acre  appreciated  $30,000,  or  £6,000,  in  value  within  a  week, 
and  found  a  purchaser  at  this  figure.  The  passage  of  years 
has  not  tempered  an  oil- boom  with  wisdom.  During  the 
Calgary  rush,  early  in  1914,  land  supposed  to  be  oil-bearing 
commanded  from  $50,000  to  $60,000  (£10,000  to  £12,000) 
per  acre;  while  companies  exceeding  a  total  capital  of 
$60,000,000,  or  £12,000,000,  were  formed  in  forty-eight 
hours,  notwithstanding  that  the  oil-field  at  the  tune  was  a 
doubtful  proposition,  and  had  revealed  petroleum  only  in 
an  indifferent  quantity  at  one  well.  Even  the  leading  oil 
companies  do  not  fail  to  make  their  presence  felt  upon  such 
occasions.  The  world's  cry  for  oil  is  so  insistent  that  it 
behoves  these  organizations  to  make  an  early  move,  so  as  to 
be  in  a  secure  position  should  prospects  materialize.  Thus, 
when  a  Canadian  oil-boom  became  manifest  some  years  ago, 
the  Standard  Oil  Company  immediately  set  aside  $5,000,000, 
or  £1,000,000,  so  as  to  be  in  a  position  to  participate  in  the 
Canadian  development  directly  it  became  established. 

A  similar  state  of  affairs  attended  the  proving  of  the 
Mexican  oil-fields  after  they  had  been  proved  by  Lord 
Cowdray.  At  the  time  he  appeared  upon  the  scene,  only 
two  other  companies  were  working  in  the  country,  and  their 
successes  had  been  indifferent.  But  the  striking  of  "  Dos 
Bocas,"  with  its  mammoth  yield,  precipitated  the  inevitable 
rush.  Speculators  purchased  leases  and  concessions  cheaply, 
and  offered  them  dearly.  Some  were  able  to  realize;  others 
still  have  them  on  their  hands,  and  are  searching  anxiously 
for  purchasers.  Within  twelve  years  the  number  of  oil 
companies  in  Mexico  increased  from  two  to  about  130,  but 
only  a  round  fifty  of  these  concerns  are  working  to-day ;  the 
remainder  exist  on  paper,  are  dormant  or  moribund. 


56  THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

Seeing  that  the  speculator  confines  his  energies  to  tapping 
the  oil,  one  may  wonder  how  he  disposes  of  his  product. 
He  makes  practically  no  arrangements  to  this  end.  He 
may  set  up  a  small  tank  or  dig  a  temporary  pond  in  which 
to  collect  the  oil.  Then  he  notifies  one  of  the  large  com- 
panies that  he  is  able  to  dispose  of  so  many  barrels  of  oil 

per  day oil  is  computed  by  the  barrel,  which  in  the  case  of 

crude  oil  is  equivalent  to  forty-two  gallons.  If  a  pipe-line  is 
within  reasonable  distance  of  the  property  and  the  yield  is 
attractive,  the  company  operating  the  latter  will  extend  its 
system  to  the  well.  If  the  pipe-line  runs  past  the  property, 
it  will  insert  a  branch  and  connect  up.  If  there  is  neither,  it 
will  collect  the  oil  by  some  other  method,  so  long  as  it  is 
not  too  expensive.  No  contribution  of  oil,  no  matter  how 
insignificant  it  may  appear,  can  be  ignored,  if  there  is  any 
feasible  way  to  gather  and  convey  it  to  the  tank  farm. 
A  pipe-line  company  will  collect  a  mere  bagatelle  of  twelve 
barrels  a  day  just  as  readily  as  an  output  of  50,000  barrels. 
The  conveyance  of  the  crude  from  the  field  to  the  refinery 
is  one  of  the  wonders  of  the  oil  world,  as  narrated  in  another 
chapter. 

The  individual  and  syndicate  gambler  is  to  be  found  in 
every  corner  of  the  United  States.  His  energies  and  specu- 
lative activity  have  opened  up  the  deposits  of  territories 
which  were  generally  considered  to  be  barren.  He  takes 
long  chances  in  the  true  gambling  manner ;  does  not  hesitate 
to  rush  in  where  wealthy  organizations  fear  to  penetrate. 
He  revealed  the  petroleum  wealth  of  Texas,  Kansas, 
Oklahoma,  and  is  now  toiling  among  the  bad  lands  of 
Wyoming  and  the  forbidding  fastnesses  of  Alaska.  In  each 
instance  the  local  producing  industry  has  been  set  upon  a 
solid  foundation  through  his  plunges  and  enterprise.  The 
pioneer  in  a  new  field,  far  removed  from  exploited  territory, 
labours  under  advantages  and  disadvantages.  Being  the 
first  upon  the  scene,  his  well  provides  the  pent-up  oil  with 
the  outlet  for  which  it  is  striving.  The  petroleum  bursts 
out  with  terrific  force  and  in  huge  volume.  It  is  certain  to 
be  a  big  strike  if  the  heart  of  the  stratum  be  penetrated. 


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THE  "  OIL-BOOMERS  "  AND  OIL  RUSHES         57 

News  of  the  strike  is  flashed  to  all  corners  of  the  country, 
and  other  speculators,  fired  by  the  chance  to  make  money 
quickly,  stampede  to  the  new  field  with  their  tackle  and 
equipment.  In  a  short  time  the  whole  of  the  territory  for  miles 
around  the  first  strike  is  divided  up  into  claims.  Timber 
derricks  housing  the  drilling  plant  spring  up  like  magic. 

The  pioneer  is  literally  overwhelmed  with  oil,  and  his 
troubles  then  are  likely  to  commence.  He  strives  might  and 
main  to  save  as  much  as  he  can,  and  probably  succeeds  in 
retrieving  a  small  proportion  of  the  yield.  Immediately 
the  strike  is  noised  abroad,  and  even  before  the  stampeding 
speculators  have  arrived,  the  representatives  of  the  big 
companies  are  upon  the  scene,  surveying  the  situation,  and 
hurriedly  debating  the  ways  and  means  of  collecting  and 
storing  the  oil,  as  well  as  transporting  it  to  the  refineries. 
Earthen  reservoirs  probably  are  thrown  up  hurriedly, 
while  simultaneously  material  for  tanks  is  ordered  by  tele- 
graph. The  steel  and  labour  is  rushed  to  the  spot,  and, 
ere  other  drills  have  commenced  to  bore  into  the  earth  to 
tap  the  deposit,  the  tanks  commence  to  assume  their  familiar 
form.  Simultaneously  the  pipe-line  is  hurried  forward, 
and  pumping-stations  taken  in  hand.  The  result  is  that, 
before  many  wells  have  been  sunk,  ample  facilities  are  avail- 
able to  receive  the  oil,  and  the  means  of  transporting  to  the 
refineries  well  advanced  towards  completion.  The  first  few 
weeks  in  a  new  oil-field  are  times  of  extraordinary  bustle 
and  activity,  there  being  no  cessation  of  effort  night  or  day 
to  have  things  in  working  order  by  the  time  additional 
wells  commence  to  flow.  Nothing  is  permitted,  and 
nothing,  indeed,  is  able,  to  arrest  progress  once  an  oil-fever 
has  broken  out. 

At  times  awkward  situations  develop,  especially  if  the 
pioneer  has  penetrated  into  new  country  far  from  facilities 
for  storing  and  collecting  the  oil.  In  fact,  sometimes  the 
adventurous,  intrepid  plunger  is  a  doubtful  blessing  to  the 
oil  industry.  For  instance,  when  the  Texan  oil-fields  were 
brought  into  productivity,  so  much  oil  was  obtained  as  to 
precipitate  a  glut.  There  were  no  cheap  facilities  available 


58  THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

for  its  transportation.  The  drillers  had  the  mortification 
of  seeing  fortunes  slipping  through  their  hands.  The  pipe- 
lines were  hundreds  of  miles  away.  Oil  had  to  be  sold  for 
what  it  would  fetch,  and  the  price  during  the  height  of  the 
boom  sank  to  10  cents,  or  5d.,  per  barrel.  A  similar  state 
of  affairs  prevailed  during  the  Kansas  boom.  The  drillers, 
in  their  mad  haste,  never  paused  to  consider  upon  the  dis- 
posal of  the  petroleum.  They  simply  sank  well  after  well 
as  rapidly  as  they  could.  The  price  of  the  crude  oil,  owing 
to  the  situation,  sank  as  low  as  17  and  14  cents  (8£d.  and  yd.) 
per  barrel,  which  was  a  ruinous  figure.  No  improvement 
took  place  until  the  pipe-lines  were  laid,  when,  communica- 
tion with  the  refineries  being  established,  the  price  rose  to 
the  normal  figure. 

The  large  producers  and  refineries,  appreciating  the  value 
of  the  speculative  oil-seeker,  foster  rather  than  discourage 
his  activities.  He  absolves  them  from  considerable  pre- 
liminary expense  in  drilling  and  proving  a  new  territory. 
Their  work  is  reduced  to  purchasing  and  transporting  the 
raw  material  when  it  has  been  tapped.  It  is  a  development 
which  is  peculiar  to  the  United  States.  In  other  oil-pro- 
ducing countries  such  a  tendency  is  not  supported.  Steady 
and  scientific  prospecting  and  development  are  preferred. 
Taxation,  moreover,  is  an  effective  barrier  against  this  form 
of  speculation,  especially  when  the  tax  assumes  the  form  of 
so  much  per  barrel  or  other  volume  yielded  by  the  well. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  speculating  driller  does  not  always 
regard  his  successes  with  pleasure,  especially  upon  a  new 
field.  The  first  well  struck  is  generally  prolific  in  its  flow; 
so  much  so  that  it  invariably  gets  beyond  control.  The 
oil  then  is  lost  if  the  more  fearful  calamity,  fire,  does  not 
supervene.  All  the  big  strikes  in  the  United  States  have 
been  accompanied  by  a  terrific  waste  of  oil.  In  connection 
with  the  first  strike  in  California,  the  oil  rushed  out  in  a 
terrific  fountain,  carved  a  bed  for  itself,  and  was  lost  com- 
pletely by  tumbling  over  the  cliff,  a  miniature  Niagara  of 
petroleum,  into  the  waters  of  the  river  below.  The  arrival 
of  scores  of  other  speculating  spirits  and  the  feverish  zeal 


THE  "  OIL-BOOMERS  "  AND  OIL  RUSHES         59 

with  which  they  drive  their  wells  to  tap  the  subterranean 
liquid  wealth  eases  the  situation  somewhat,  because,  as  the 
deposits  are  given  additional  vents,  the  energy  expended 
in  the  first  borehole  diminishes,  until  at  last  complete 
control  is  secured.  Then  the  oil  can  be  kept  in  leash  until 
the  storage  facilities  are  completed,  when  the  oil  either  is 
permitted  to  rush  into  the  tanks  under  its  own  volition,  or, 
owing  to  the  reduced  pressure,  has  to  be  drawn  by  pumping. 
One  curious  outcome  of  an  oil-boom  in  a  new  territory, 
and  one  which  often  puzzles  the  stranger,  may  be  noted. 
The  claims  are  marked  off,  the  territory  of  each  man  being 
well  defined.  Smith  will  sink  his  well,  say,  20  feet  east  of 
his  boundary,  and  taps  the  oil  below.  His  neighbour 
Brown  at  once  sets  to  work  at  a  point  20  feet  west  of  the 
above  boundary — that  is,  40  feet  distant  from,  and  in  line 
with,  Smith's  well.  This  is  known  as  an  "  offset  well,"  and 
is  driven  by  Brown  essentially  as  a  measure  of  self-protec- 
tion. It  is  obvious  that  the  oil  underlies  the  two  properties, 
so,  if  Smith  alone  sinks  a  well,  he  not  only  draws  oil  from 
his  own  land,  but  also  saps  Brown's  property.  By  sinking 
the  wells  in  this  manner,  Smith  and  Brown  draw  equally 
from  the  reserves  below.  If  either  should  sink  a  second, 
third,  or  even  more  wells,  a  similar  distance  from  the  boun- 
dary, the  other  will  follow  suit  instantly.  Brown  is  not 
permitted  to  have  one  well  in  excess  of  Smith  near  the 
dividing-line.  This  practice  is  followed  in  all  oil-producing 
territories  where  the  land  is  divided  up  into  comparatively 
small  areas.  In  many  cases  the  wells  will  be  sunk  so  closely 
together  that  the  buildings  will  almost  touch  one  another. 
The  appearance  of  two  parallel  rows  of  derricks  on  either 
side  of  a  fence,  with  extensive  open  and  untouched  areas 
on  either  side,  is  certainly  somewhat  quaint.  The  un- 
initiated is  apt  to  imagine  from  this  set-out  of  the  wells 
that  the  oil  extends  underground  in  the  form  of  a  perfectly 
straight  river.  The  first  wells  always  are  sunk  near  the 
boundary-lines,  leaving  the  centre  of  the  property  un- 
touched, because  if  the  flow  continues  and  warrants  such 
further  development,  the  later  wells  can  be  sunk  in  the 


60  THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

centre  of  the  claim,  where  the  oil  is  not  likely  to  be  drained 
away  by  the  operators  on  the  adjacent  claims. 

It  is  somewhat  curious  that  the  speculating  oil-driller, 
notwithstanding  his  energy  and  enterprise,  more  often  than 
not  fails  to  amass  a  fortune.  This  is  entirely  due  to  his 
love  for  a  gamble  and  his  quaint  delight  in  driving  a  well  and 
proving  his  ground.  He  is  a  roving  adventurer  to  the 
manner  born.  Sinking  a  well  appears  to  be  his  one  am- 
bition in  life.  When  he  has  brought  it  to  the  productive 
stage,  and  a  comfortable  fortune  is  likely  to  accrue  if 
patience  be  observed  to  permit  the  revenues  from  his 
product  to  accumulate,  he  follows  an  unusual  line  of  action. 
The  gambling  instinct  refuses  to  be  stifled.  He  knows  only 
too  well  that  his  borehole  may  give  out  any  day.  Ac- 
cordingly, he  invariably  sells  his  property  outright,  either 
to  one  of  the  large  companies,  or  finds  a  purchaser  who  is 
content  to  follow  the  stay-at-home-and-wait-to-get-rich 
policy.  Many  productive  wells  have  been  sold  for  trifling 
sums — £2,000  to  £20,000  ( $10,000  to  $100,000) — and  have 
brought  large  fortunes  to  their  new  purchasers.  The 
speculator,  armed  with  the  ready  cash  thus  obtained, 
immediately  hurries  off  to  a  new  corner  of  the  country  to 
tempt  fortune  once  more.  His  one  great  objective  is  to 
strike  a  gusher:  to  accomplish  a  feat  which  will  set  the 
whole  country  agog  with  excitement.  It  is  a  vanity,  and, 
in  endeavouring  to  satisfy  this  foible,  disaster  often  is  en- 
countered. The  gambler  loses  what  money  he  has  placed 
to  his  credit,  and  is  forced  to  work  for  a  weekly  wage  until 
he  can  save  another  sufficiency  to  enable  him  to  start 
afresh  upon  his  own  initiative. 

Although  the  oil-drilling  speculation  is  fascinating,  and 
the  prizes  to  be  won  certainly  are  attractive,  the  failures 
far  outnumber  the  successes.  Hundreds  of  wells  are  sunk, 
but  only  scores  are  productive.  A  mere  barrel  a  day  is 
the  reward  in  many  instances,  while  a  strike  of  water  is 
often  the  solitary  return  for  the  expenditure  of  energy  and 
capital.  Consequently,  in  this  peculiar  calling,  the  truth 
of  the  time-worn  adage  is  substantiated,  and  not  disproved. 


CHAPTER  V 

TAPPING  AND  DRAWING  THE  OIL 

IN  sinking  an  oil-well  a  premium  is  placed  upon  practical 
skill,  especially  when  it  is  supported  by  years  of  varied 
experience  in  the  field.  The  wages  of  the  men  who  reach 
down  to  release  the  accumulations  of  liquid  mineral  im- 
prisoned in  the  earth  range  from  £25  to  £40  ( §125  to  $200) 
per  month.  Often  an  attractive  bonus  is  offered  as  an 
incentive  to  greater  effort  to  expedite  the  task. 

The  expert  driller  is  of  a  class  apart — self-reliant,  enter- 
prising, persevering,  optimistic,  and  of  uncanny  resource. 
Geological  data  may  be  available  to  indicate  the  character 
of  the  strata  which  the  drills  may  be  called  upon  to  pene- 
trate, but  absolute  confidence  cannot  be  placed  upon  such 
assistance.  The  driller  rather  depends  upon  his  own 
observations  and  the  "  feel "  of  the  tools  as  they  are  working, 
in  precisely  the  same  way  as  the  expert  hand  controlling 
an  engine,  who  is  able  to  detect  by  sound  and  touch  the 
slightest  deviation  from  the  normal  rhythm  of  his  charge. 

Naturally,  the  drills,  in  driving  their  downward  way,  are 
disposed  to  follow  the  path  of  least  resistance.  This  ten- 
dency must  be  frustrated.  It  is  absolutely  imperative  that 
a  borehole  shall  be  plumb,  to  facilitate  the  subsequent 
operation  of  drawing  the  oil,  either  by  pumping,  bailing,  or 
whatever  process  is  adopted.  Should  the  borehole  deviate 
from  the  vertical  alignment,  it  must  be  corrected,  and  this 
can  only  be  accomplished  by  redrilling.  Again,  it  may  so 
happen  that  a  mishap  befalls  the  tools  chugging  at  the 
bottom  of  the  hole.  One  or  more  members  of  the  string 
perhaps  come  adrift  and  fall  to  the  bottom  of  the  hole,  or 
some  other  misadventure  may  mar  the  steady  round  of 
toil.  In  any  event  the  lost  tools  must  be  recovered  or  the 

61 


62  THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

accident  remedied.  When  the  borehole  is  only  6  inches  in 
diameter,  and  the  breakdown  occurs  at  a  depth  of  1,000  feet 
or  more,  one  may  consider  that  the  recovery  of  the  lost 
tools  is  an  extremely  remote  possibility. 

But  it  is  the  unexpected  for  which  provision  must  be 
made.  Although  1,000  feet  down,  and  imprisoned  in  a 
small  circular  space,  the  tools  can  be  reclaimed.  Special 
devices,  known  as  "  fishing  "  tools,  are  brought  into  service. 
These  implements  are  of  varying  design  for  the  work  which 
has  to  be  achieved.  One  will  catch  hold  of  a  member  of 
the  string  which  has  come  adrift  below  the  collar;  another 
will  seize  a  loose  tool  in  the  well;  a  third  will  loosen  tools 
which  have  jambed  in  the  borehole;  a  fourth  will  grip 
a  piece  of  steel  or  any  other  small  tool  which  has  been 
dropped  into  the  hole  inadvertently;  a  fifth  will  cut  the 
cable  at  any  desired  point  and  depth;  while  another  will 
catch  hold  of  the  cable  if  it  has  broken;  and  so  on.  It  is 
very  rarely,  if  ever,  that  a  borehole  has  to  be  abandoned 
nowadays  because  some  tools  have  broken  loose  and  are 
obstructing  the  passage. 

Some  extraordinary  factor  must  supervene  to  cause  a 
driller  to  relinquish  the  task  which  he  has  undertaken  to 
complete.  The  odds  must  be  overwhelmingly  against  him. 
The  driller  is  ready  for  any  emergency.  A  drilling  bit 
becomes  fixed  in  the  material  which  it  is  penetrating,  and 
snaps  from  the  string.  The  uninitiated  will  regard  the 
situation  as  hopeless,  owing  to  the  severity  of  the  jamb 
and  the  extreme  depth  at  which  it  has  occurred.  But  the 
driller  has  no  apprehensions.  He  merely  withdraws  the 
cable,  attaches  a  suitable  contrivance,  which  he  introduces 
into  the  borehole,  lowers  it,  and  commences  to  fish  for  the 
missing  member.  He  spuds  round  the  seized  bit,  and 
gradually  but  surely  releases  it.  Finally  he  sends  down 
another  tool,  which  grips  the  missing  broken  implement 
and  brings  it  to  the  surface.  Fishing  operations  may  be 
wearisome  and  laborious.  Often  weeks,  and  even  months, 
are  occupied  in  patient,  expensive  work,  making  and  ad- 
justing the  fishing  tools  to  fit  the  fractured  portion  of  the 


TAPPING  AND  DRAWING  THE  OIL  63 

implements  within  the  hole.  But  the  driller  pursues  his 
arduous  way  unperturbed.  Such  misfortunes  are  in- 
separable from  his  peculiar  task. 

Sometimes  the  whole  string  of  tools  breaks  away  from  the 
cable,  and  becomes  jambed  in  the  borehole.  In  this  instance 
a  length  of  65  feet  of  tools  connected  together,  and  weighing 
some  3,000  pounds  or  more,  demands  recovery.  It  is  of  no 
avail  to  lower  a  device  and  to  pull  away  at  the  derelict. 
Such  action  will  assuredly  fail  to  fulfil  the  desired  end. 
The  driller  meets  this  awkward  situation  by  attaching  a 
special  tool  to  the  cable.  This  he  lowers  into  the  well,  and 
starts  to  drill  downwards  beside  the  imprisoned  string.  In 
this  way  he  opens  out  the  borehole,  and  the  increased  space 
thus  provided  enables  the  jambed  string  to  be  freed.  Once 
this  has  been  accomplished,  recovery  is  assured. 

Occasionally,  through  severe  external  pressure,  or  owing 
to  an  inherent  defect  in  the  material,  the  casing  collapses 
and  completely  obstructs  the  passage.  But  by  means  of 
a  fluted  swedge  the  driller  surmounts  this  difficulty.  With 
his  special  tool  he  drives  a  hole  through  the  obstruction, 
providing  a  passage  as  clear  and  as  good  as  that  which  existed 
before  the  mishap.  Nowadays  the  driller  is  not  dismayed 
by  any  accident  to  his  borehole,  no  matter  how  serious 
it  may  appear:  practically  nothing,  except  a  complete 
cave-in  of  the  earth,  will  cause  him  to  abandon  a  hole  upon 
which  he  has  once  commenced  drilling.  Mishap  may  pro- 
voke a  serious  loss  of  tune,  but  the  driller  is  patient  and 
dogged,  so  overcomes  the  set-back  successfully. 

But  the  well-driller  has  one  relentless  enemy.  This  is 
water.  It  is  obvious,  when  driving  downwards  through  the 
earth's  crust,  that  pockets  of  imprisoned  water  must  be 
encountered,  and  often  the  borehole  provides  a  welcome 
vent  for  a  lurking  spring.  Fighting  water  undoubtedly 
constitutes  the  driller's  grimmest  and  most  severe  task, 
especially  if  the  enemy  makes  its  entrance  by  bursting  the 
casing  after  the  tools  have  advanced  a  considerable  distance 
beyond  the  "  bad  "  spot.  The  water,  finding  an  outlet  for 
which  it  has  long  been  seeking,  rushes  forth  with  fury,  and 


64  THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

occasionally  threatens  to  flood  the  workings.  The  driller 
may  be  surprised  and  balked,  but  he  will  not  be  beaten. 
He  reconnoitres  the  situation,  prepares  his  plans,  puts  them 
into  execution,  and  in  time  he  triumphs.  It  may  be  a  stern 
and  spirited  tussle  for  supremacy,  but  the  opposition  of 
Nature  has  to  assume  extremely  formidable  proportions 
before  the  driller  will  admit  defeat. 

Water  trouble  is  encountered  in  its  most  serious  form 
when  driving  a  borehole  through  quicksand  and  clay.  In 
this  instance  it  is  not  only  the  water  which  harasses  the 
driller,  but  the  treacherous  earth  which  is  set  in  motion  by 
the  water.  It  is  incumbent  upon  the  driller,  working  with 
the  hydraulic  rotary  equipment,  to  keep  a  sharp  eye  upon 
the  return  flush,  which  he  drives  into  the  borehole  to  cool 
the  cutting  tool  and  to  sweep  the  debris  to  the  surface.  The 
returning  water  offers  an  index  to  conditions  prevailing  in 
the  well.  Sometimes  the  flush  does  not  come  to  the  surface. 
It  is  only  too  evident  that  the  tools  are  driving  through  a 
porous  formation  which  is  absorbing  the  water.  If  sand  is 
troublesome,  a  thick  mixture  of  water  and  clay  is  prepared, 
to  prevent  the  running  sand  from  closing  the  hole.  The 
casing  or  drive-pipe  is  driven  down  with  all  speed  to  traverse 
and  shut  off  or  seal  the  absorbing  formation.  The  water 
pumped  into  the  borehole,  being  unable  to  escape  in  the 
previous  direction,  once  more  returns  to  the  surface,  and 
when  the  driller  observes  this  return  to  be  steady  and  of 
regular  volume,  he  knows  that  he  has  dealt  successfully 
with  the  fault  below. 

As  the  drills  penetrate  the  lower  formations  lying  imme- 
diately above  the  oil-bed,  indications  of  this  fact  are  be- 
trayed. The  volatile  constituents  of  the  petroleum,  which 
have  been  given  off  in  the  form  of  gas,  penetrate  convenient 
fissures  and  cracks.  The  drill  in  its  descent  taps  these 
pockets  of  gas,  which  naturally  surge  to  the  surface  through 
the  borehole.  The  driller  maintains  a  vigilant  lookout  for 
such  signs,  because  they  guide  him  very  reliably.  If  the 
volume  of  gas  assumes  substantial  proportions,  special  pre- 
cautions are  urgent  for  its  free  conveyance  into  the  air,  or 


TAPPING  AND  DRAWING  THE  OIL  65 

it  may  be  sealed  off.  If  the  gas  can  be  turned  to  useful 
account,  it  is  led  through  piping  to  the  furnaces  of  the 
boilers,  or  induced  to  drive  the  gas-engine  which  is  being 
used  for  supplying  the  necessary  energy  to  run  the  drilling 
plant. 

When  the  oil  or,  "paying,"  sands,  as  the  oil  stratum  is 
called,  are  entered,  the  fact  that  oil  has  been  struck  may  be  re- 
vealed by  the  petroleum  immediately  spurting  from  the  bore- 
hole in  a  terrifying  fountain.  On  the  other  hand,  it  may  rise 
to  the  surface  imperceptibly ;  the  oil  has  commenced  to  flow, 
but  the  movement  perhaps  is  sluggish.  It  must  be  hurried. 
To  consummate  this  end,  recourse  is  made  to  a  powerful 
explosive,  the  operation  of  firing  the  charge  to  increase  the 
oil-flow  being  known  as  "  shooting  "  or  "  torpedoing  "  the 
well. 

In  order  to  insure  the  free  movement  of  the  petroleum 
through  the  borehole,  it  is  essential  that  the  lower  end  of 
the  latter  should  terminate  in  a  space  or  cavity  into  which 
the  oil  may  gravitate  and  collect.  As  a  rule  the  oil  is  im- 
pregnated heavily  with  sand,  and  if  this  material  is  per- 
mitted to  gather  at  the  bottom  of  the  hole,  naturally  the 
latter  becomes  choked  and  the  flow  of  the  oil  is  impeded, 
if  not  completely  arrested.  By  resorting  to  the  stern  per- 
suasion of  an  explosive,  this  cavity  is  established  and  kept 
clear.  It  must  be  pointed  out,  however,  that  "  shooting  " 
is  undertaken  only  when  the  limestone  or  sandstone  is  of 
such  a  nature  that  it  restricts  the  flow  of  oil.  For  instance, 
while  it  is  eminently  satisfactory  in  the  eastern  and  central 
oil-fields  of  the  United  States,  it  is  not  successful  among  the 
oil-sands  of  California.  Similarly,  it  has  a  certain  vogue 
upon  the  Caucasian  oil-fields. 

"  Shooting  "  the  well  is  perhaps  the  most  delicate  opera- 
tion, and  incidentally  it  reveals  the  supreme  contempt, 
born  of  familiarity,  with  which  man  comes  to  regard  a 
terrible  devastating  agent.  In  the  early  days  powder  was 
utilized,  but  to-day  nitro-glycerine  is  used  for  this  purpose 
As  is  well  known,  this  is  undoubtedly  the  most  sensitive  and 
destructive  medium  known ;  but  the  shooter  handles  it  with 

5 


66  THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

no  more  compunction  than  if  it  were  treacle,  though  he  is 
fully  cognizant  of  its  annihilating  powers. 

The  shot  for  a  well  comprises  a  cylindrical  vessel,  ter- 
minating at  one  end  in  a  cone  point,  to  the  point  of  which 
is  attached  a  small  tin  tube  about  2  inches  long.  The  type 
of  torpedo  varies  somewhat,  that  generally  used  in  the 
United  States  differing  from  that  employed  in  the  Caucasian 
oil-fields.  In  the  former  country  the  cylindrical  vessel 
ranges  from  6  to  7  feet  in  length,  and  as  a  rule  is  of  sufficient 
capacity  to  receive  20  quarts  of  nitro-glycerine. 

In  shooting  the  well,  every  care  has  to  be  taken  that  the 
explosive  charge  is  deposited  the  correct  height  in  the  sand- 
bed  beneath  the  extremity  of  the  borehole.  When  all  is 
ready  for  shooting,  the  well  is  cleaned  out  thoroughly,  a 
sand-bucket  and  what  is  known  as  a  swab  being  employed 
for  this  duty.  Then  the  depth  of  the  borehole  is  ascer- 
tained with  accuracy ;  a  steel  tape,  to  which  a  plumb  or  steel 
basket  is  attached,  is  lowered  into  the  well,  and  the  reading 
taken  directly  the  plumb  touches  bottom. 

The  charge  is  now  prepared.  The  tube  is  connected  to 
a  cord  and  pulley  system,  and  is  lowered  into  the  mouth  of 
the  well  to  facilitate  the  loading  of  the  charge.  The  nitro- 
glycerine, brought  to  the  well  in  2-gallon  tins,  is  poured 
into  the  cylinder.  The  top  of  the  tube  is  fitted  with  a  metal 
lid  and  a  cap  of  fulminate  of  mercury,  this  being  the  de- 
tonator employed,  the  arrangement  being  completed  by 
means  of  a  copper  bale.  The  charge  completed,  the  tube  is 
lowered  slowly  into  the  borehole  until  it  comes  to  rest  finally 
in  a  vertical  position  in  the  sand-bed  below.  The  slack  in 
the  paying-out  cord  releases  the  latter  from  the  hook  of 
the  charge,  and  the  rope  is  wound  in  rapidly. 

The  crucial  moment  for  firing  has  arrived.  The  shooter 
takes  a  final  look  round.  All  boiler  fires  and  other  naked 
lights  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  well  are  extinguished ; 
the  workmen  also  are  hurried  to  a  safe  distance.  Satisfied 
that  all  precautions  have  been  taken,  the  shooter,  now  in 
solitary  possession  of  the  well,  fires  the  charge.  The  method 
of  so  doing  may  appear  to  be  somewhat  primitive,  but,  as 


TAPPING  AND  DRAWING  THE  OIL  67 

a  superior  arrangement  has  not  been  evolved,  it  still  is  prac- 
tised, and  there  is  no  gainsaying  its  efficiency.  He  uses 
what  is  known  as  a  "  go-devil."  This  is  a  compact  and 
heavy  cylindrical  piece  of  solid  cast-iron,  fitted  with  wings 
to  serve  as  a  guide.  He  drops  this  into  the  borehole.  The 
wings  cause  the  "  go-devil  "  to  rotate  during  its  downward 
flight,  and  at  the  same  time  causes  it  to  follow  a  direct 
course,  so  that  it  strikes  the  detonator  fairly  and  squarely, 
as  well  as  with  terrific  force.  Seeing  that  the  tube  of  explo- 
sive is  standing  vertically  in  the  oil-sands  and  immediately 
beneath  the  extremity  of  the  borehole,  it  is  obvious  that  the 
"  go-devil  "  must  strike  the  detonator. 

The  shooter  stands  by  the  borehole  to  ascertain  the  effects 
of  his  shot.  In  a  second  or  two  he  knows  that  the  "  go- 
devil  "  has  completed  its  work  satisfactorily;  he  hears  and 
feels  the  explosion ;  the  tubular  casing  of  the  well  confirms 
this  intimation  by  vibrating  violently.  Immediately  these 
evidences  are  detected,  the  shooter  scampers  to  a  safe  dis- 
tance to  await  events. 

Seconds  roll  by,  and  the  uninitiated  spectators,  who  in- 
variably gather  to  witness  the  spectacle,  are  cherishing  the 
sanguine  opinion  that  the  shot  has  missed.  Seeing  that  the 
borehole  may  be  1,000  feet  in  depth,  and  that  the  air 
within  forms  a  cushion,  which  has  to  be  expelled,  the  delay 
is  not  surprising.  Presently  there  is  a  roar,  gathering 
rapidly  in  intensity,  accompanied  by  an  indescribable  clatter. 
The  roar  is  the  report  of  the  explosion  rolling  up  the  re- 
stricted space  of  the  tube;  the  clatter  is  the  bombardment 
of  the  interior  of  the  derrick  with  pieces  of  rock — some  as 
large  as  the  fist — and  other  debris,  hurled  violently  from  the 
well-hole  amid  a  cloud  of  dust,  gas,  and  oil.  Often  the 
derrick  is  blotted  from  sight  by  the  outrushing  wave.  After 
the  first  gust,  as  a  rule,  the  fountain  of  oil  dies  down  to  a 
mere  bubble  from  the  borehole,  or  issues  in  a  lazy  kind  of 
over-running  flow.  But  the  shooter  is  satisfied;  the  shot 
has  told  that  the  well  has  been  brought  into  productivity. 

Occasionally  the  first  shot  fails  to  accomplish  the  desired 
end,  in  which  event  one  or  more  explosions  are  necessary 


68  THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

to  induce  the  flow.  Then  the  procedure  has  to  be  varied, 
for  the  simple  reason  that  a  large  cavity  has  been  produced 
at  the  bottom  of  the  borehole  by  the  preceding  charge  of 
nitro-glycerine;  consequently  successive  tubes  of  the  ex- 
plosive will  not  stand  upright,  but  will  incline  to  the  angle 
of  the  banks  of  the  cavity.  In  this  instance  several  tin  tubes 
are  requisitioned,  each  of  which  receives  a  charge  of  nitro- 
glycerine. These  tubes  are  somewhat  shorter  than  those 
employed  in  the  first  instance,  being  from  3  to  4  feet  in  length . 
They  are  fitted  with  conical  bases,  and  the  explosive  is 
poured  into  the  top  of  each  vessel,  which  is  then  sealed  with 
a  cork.  The  tubes  are  connected  in  pairs,  and  in  this  manner 
are  lowered  into  the  well.  At  the  bottom  of  the  borehole 
the  pairs  of  tubes  assume  varying  positions  and  inclinations. 
This  circumstance  militates  against  the  employment  of  a 
"  go-devil  "  for  firing  purposes,  so  another  device  is  em- 
ployed; this  is  called  a  "  squib,"  which  in  reality  is  a  fuse. 
The  squib  is  lighted,  and  then  dropped  into  the  well .  Owing 
to  its  construction,  it  is  certain  to  fall  among  the  buried 
charges,  and  to  fire  at  least  one  of  them ;  the  explosion  of  the 
one  insures  the  successful  detonation  of  the  other  charges, 
and  thus  the  well  is  shot. 

Often  a  well  will  yield  steadily  for  several  months,  and 
then  the  flow  will  diminish  or  stop  entirely  for  no  apparent 
reason.  These  indications,  however,  point  to  the  collection 
of  sand  around  the  bottom  of  the  borehole,  thus  impeding 
the  passage  of  the  oil.  To  clear  the  obstruction,  shooting  is 
necessary,  but  in  this  instance  a  charge  of  some  40  quarts 
of  nitro-glycerine  is  necessary,  and  it  generally  suffices  to 
revive  the  activity  of  the  well. 

One  might  think  that  the  detonation  of  such  a  charge  as 
20  or  40  quarts  of  such  a  powerful  explosive  as  nitro-glycerine 
would  inflict  widespread  damage  upon  the  tubular  casing 
of  the  well,  but  this  is  not  the  case.  The  explosive  exerts 
its  destructive  force  in  downward  and  horizontal  directions, 
leaving  the  casing  unscathed,  while  the  escaping  gases  drive 
the  displaced  d6bris  and  oil  to  the  surface  with  terrific  force. 
Occasionally  the  lower  end  of  the  casing  will  suffer  dis- 


TAPPING  AND  DRAWING  THE  OIL  69 

ruption,  but  such  damage  is  generally  attributable  to  im- 
proper laying  and  firing  of  the  charge  rather  than  to  any 
defects  in  the  system. 

Although  the  explosive  is  handled  with  apparent  com- 
placency by  the  shooter,  as  a  matter  of  fact  this  useful 
servant  is  regarded  with  deep  respect.  A  tin  is  never  used 
twice  for  loading  with  nitro-glycerine,  nor,  indeed,  for  any 
other  purpose;  the  risk  is  too  great.  No  matter  how  care- 
fully and  apparently  completely  a  tin  may  be  emptied,  tiny 
beads  or  a  thin  film  of  the  liquid  are  certain  to  adhere  to 
the  interior  surfaces  of  the  cans;  consequently,  when  the 
contents  of  the  latter  are  removed,  the  empty  tins  are  re- 
moved to  a  safe  distance  and  piled  in  a  heap.  When  the 
shooter  has  completed  his  task  in  connection  with  the  well, 
he  disposes  of  the  empty  cans  summarily.  He  attaches  a 
fuse  to,  and  fires,  the  heap.  Although  the  quantity  of  ex- 
plosive lingering  in  each  tin  is  insignificant,  the  terrific  dev- 
astating forces  of  nitro-glycerine  are  brought  home  very 
vividly;  the  empty  tins  are  blown  to  atoms,  while  a  fairly 
respectable  hole  is  torn  in  the  ground  where  the  pile  stood. 

As  may  be  supposed,  the  shooter  is  highly  skilled  and 
expert  in  his  peculiar  craft ;  but  the  demand  upon  his  services 
is  somewhat  uncertain  and  erratic.  At  tunes  is  he  over- 
whelmed with  orders ;  at  others  he  is  idle  for  weeks.  Taking 
into  consideration  the  risks  incidental  to  his  work,  he  is  not 
overpaid.  His  remuneration  averages  about  43.  ($i)  per 
quart  of  explosive  used,  so  that  a  well  which  responds  to  the 
first  persuasive  effort  he  applies  brings  him  in  only  about 
£4  ($20),  while  the  revival  of  a  well  may  return  about  twice 
that  sum.  If  Fortune  is  kind,  and  he  is  required  for  several 
wells  in  close  proximity  to  one  another  in  a  certain  district, 
he  may  shoot  several  wells  in  one  day,  but  such  harvests 
are  few  and  far  between.  As  a  rule  he  is  on  the  road  from 
early  morn  till  the  late  hours  of  the  evening,  driving,  riding, 
or  walking  among  the  wells  in  the  oil  country. 

There  are  various  methods  of  drawing  oil  from  a  well 
once  it  has  been  brought  into  productivity.  When  gushers 
predominate,  as  in  Mexico,  no  pumping  or  other  plant  is 


70  THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

required;  the  forces  of  Nature  are  quite  sufficient  to  dis- 
charge the  petroleum  from  the  reservoirs  below.  But  in 
the  majority  of  instances  resort  has  to  be  made  to  pumping. 
In  the  Caucasian  territory  the  process  known  as  "  bailing  " 
is  followed.  The  bailer  comprises  a  long  cylindrical  vessel 
measuring  perhaps  30  feet  in  length ;  this  is  lowered  into  the 
well  in  the  manner  of  a  bucket,  is  filled  with  oil,  is  hauled 
to  the  surface,  and  is  emptied.  This  method,  even  where 
conditions  insure  cheap  labour,  is  more  expensive  than 
pumping,  and  for  this  reason  is  not  practised  extensively. 

Compressed  air  has  been  pressed  into  service  to  draw  oil 
from  wells  both  in  Russia  and  the  United  States.  It  has 
fallen  out  of  favour  among  the  foremost  engineers,  owing  to 
the  tendency,  under  certain  conditions,  of  compressing  or 
driving  back  the  oil.  The  process  is  simple.  An  air-pipe 
is  lowered  into  the  borehole  to  such  a  depth  as  to  insure 
ample  submergence  in  the  oil.  Unless  submergence  is  at- 
tained, the  system  is  impracticable.  Air  is  compressed  by 
the  ordinary  type  of  air-compressor,  and  the  pressure  of  air 
which  is  carried  down  the  pipe,  and  finally  released  at  its 
lower  extremity  among  the  oil,  raises  a  certain  proportion 
of  air  and  oil  to  the  surface.  The  flow  of  oil  appears  to  be 
almost  continuous. 

Another  ingenious  method  of  raising  oil  is  that  devised 
by  Herr  Leinweber  of  Vienna,  which  has  been  used  success- 
fully upon  the  Galician  oil-fields.  This  comprises  an  endless 
band  of  sufficient  length  to  pass  from  a  suitable  machine 
placed  at  the  mouth  of  the  well  to  the  bottom  of  the  bore- 
hole, where  it  forms  a  loop,  which  is  continually  trailing 
through  the  oil.  This  band  is  covered  with  an  absorbent 
material  similar  to  the  pile  of  a  carpet.  When  the  machine 
is  set  in  motion,  the  band,  continually  passing  through  the 
oil  in  the  cavity  at  the  bottom  of  the  well,  becomes  saturated 
with  petroleum,  which  in  due  course  is  brought  to  the  sur- 
face, where  it  is  passed  between  rollers  which  squeeze  out 
the  oil.  The  yield  of  oil  at  the  top  of  the  borehole,  of  course, 
is  continuous.  In  the  tests  which  were  carried  out  upon 
the  Boryslaw  and  Maryampolski  oil-fields,  the  results  were 


urtesy  of  the  Oil  1 1 'ell  Suffly  Com; 

THE  "SHOOTER"  POURING  A  CHARGE  OF  NITRO-GLYCERIXE. 

In  order'to  bring  a  well  into  free  activity  the  aid  of  explosives  is  often  indispensable. 


To  face  page  70. 


g  1 

X  II 

S  ;5 

H  # 

^  "8 


TAPPING  AND  DRAWING  THE  OIL  71 

found  to  be  satisfactory,  and  compared  favourably  with  the 
yield  and  cost  of  winning  oil  by  the  more  conventional 
methods.  Endless  bands  of  this  type  were  made,  and 
lowered  into  wells  2,000  and  more  feet  in  depth.  The 
system  is  not  only  simple,  but  the  items  of  maintenance  and 
repair  are  somewhat  low.  When  signs  of  wear  become 
manifest  at  certain  points  in  the  band,  it  is  only  necessary 
to  cut  out  the  worn  portions  and  to  introduce  new  lengths, 
attaching  them  to  the  existing  fabric  by  ordinary  carpet 
thread. 

In  some  places  the  oil  exists  in  several  superimposed 
layers — that  is  to  say,  one  stratum,  lying  at,  say,  1,000  feet, 
is  isolated  from  another  at  1,200  feet  by  an  intervening 
layer  of  rock  or  some  other  hard  and  dense  impervious 
material;  consequently,  when  the  upper  bed  is  exhausted, 
the  well  is  driven  deeper  to  enter  the  second  deposit.  In 
some  instances  three  or  four  successive  layers  have  been 
tapped  consecutively  in  this  manner,  although,  generally 
speaking,  the  yield  diminishes  as  greater  depths  are  attained, 
and,  of  course,  the  process  cannot  be  continued  indefinitely. 
In  the  Caucasus  and  Burmah  the  wells  now  have  to  be  sunk 
to  a  much  greater  depth  than  in  the  early  days  of  their 
existence,  and  a  similar  state  of  affairs  prevails  in  other 
countries.  It  is  becoming  more  and  more  costly  to  win  the 
oil.  The  pioneers  tapped  the  uppermost  layer  of  oil-sands, 
and  after  this  was  exhausted  abandoned  the  well,  instead 
of  driving  the  borehole  deeper.  Perhaps  their  action  is  to 
be  excused,  owing  to  the  element  of  luck  which  enters  into 
the  question.  Lower  beds  of  oil-sands  may  exist;  on  the 
other  hand,  they  may  not.  Satisfactory  proof  upon  this  point 
is  forthcoming  only  by  essaying  the  work;  but  the  chances 
of  failure  are  so  overwhelmingly  greater  than  the  possibilities 
of  success,  that  only  those  organizations  possessed  of  ample 
financial  resources  can  undertake  the  risk. 

Well-drilling  is  essentially  a  gamble  more  or  less.  The 
well  may  be  sunk  upon  the  extreme  edge  of  a  field,  and  the 
consequent  petroleum  yield  being  sluggish,  limited,  and  dis- 
appointing, an  indifferent  opinion  concerning  the  produc- 


72  THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

tivity  of  the  district  may  be  entertained  and  expressed ;  yet 
other  interests  may  drive  their  drills  some  distance  away 
and  make  a  rich  strike.  This  is  because  the  latter  tap  the 
oil-sands  where  they  are  richest,  whereas  in  the  former 
attempt  the  outermost  and  thinnest  edge  was  struck.  In 
many  instances  the  first  borings  have  missed  the  field  en- 
tirely, sometimes  by  the  proverbial  inches;  and  the  state- 
ment has  been  vouched  that  the  country  contains  no  oil, 
although,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  if  the  well  had  been  put  down 
20  feet  to  one  side  of  the  spot  actually  drilled,  the  petroleum 
would  have  been  struck  in  abundance. 

In  California,  particularly,  drilling  is  associated  with  con- 
siderable luck,  because  the  deposits,  while  of  comparatively 
limited  area,  often  are  of  exceptional  depth — they  have  been 
turned  up  edgewise  by  volcanic  action.  Many  a  well  has 
been  sunk  in  that  country  fruitlessly ;  it  has  just  missed  the 
paying  sands.  On  the  other  hand,  some  of  the  largest 
gushers  known  to  history  have  been  brought  to  life  in  that 
State.  The  American  is  fully  aware  of  this  vagary  of  Nature, 
and  consequently,  if  failure  is  courted  in  one  spot,  the  whole 
district  is  not  necessarily  condemned,  but  other  bores  are  put 
down  in  the  vicinity.  In  one  new  American  field,  after  oil  was 
struck,  wells  were  sunk  right  and  left,  but  no  less  than  70  per 
cent,  were  abandoned;  they  failed  to  discover  the  oil-sands. 
Ultimately  it  was  found  that  the  so-called  "oil  country" 
was  really  a  small  bed  which  had  become  isolated  from  the 
main  field  by  a  wide  ridge  of  rock,  which  had  been  forced 
upwards  by  seismic  action,  and  which  had  split  the  field  in 
twain.  The  main  deposits  were  not  struck  until  some  months 
later,  and  then  about  twenty  miles  away  from  the  spot 
where  the  first  wells  had  been  sunk. 

Another  factor  contributes  to  the  gambling  character  of 
drilling  for  oil,  and  incidentally  tends  to  enhance  the  cost 
of  this  commodity.  A  well  may  be  sunk  and  oil  tapped,  but 
the  flow  of  petroleum  may  be  so  small,  and  the  life  of  the 
well  so  brief,  that  sufficient  oil  is  never  brought  to  the  sur- 
face to  defray  the  cost  of  boring.  Some  wells  will  flow 
steadily  for  a  few  weeks  and  then  dry  up ;  shooting  will  fail 


TAPPING  AND  DRAWING  THE  OIL  73 

to  revive  them,  while  deeper  drilling  is  equally  disappoint- 
ing. The  well  is  abandoned.  Another  well  may  not  have 
a  heavy  flow,  but  it  maintains  its  yield,  with  very  little 
diminution,  for  months,  and  even  for  years.  Unfortunately, 
the  proportion  of  the  former  so  overwhelms  the  latter  that 
in  the  long-run  the  cost  of  winning  the  substance  is  inflated 
to  an  unreasonable  figure.  It  is  not  surprising,  therefore, 
when  a  large  and  rich  oil  territory  is  proved,  and  sustains 
the  optimistic  prophecies  of  its  pioneers,  that  the  ground 
immediately  surrounding  the  fortunate  initial  borehole  is 
honeycombed,  and  the  derricks  rise  in  such  numbers  as  to 
convey  the  impression  of  a  forest.  Every  ounce  of  oil  that 
the  field  can  yield  at  that  point  is  certain  to  be  extracted ; 
the  sands  will  be  wrung  to  the  last  drop.  Such  a  rich  strike 
offers  some  compensation  for  the  numerous  failures  which 
the  petroleum-well  sinkers  encounter  in  the  course  of  their 
operations.  "  Nothing  is  so  uncertain  as  life,"  runs  the  time- 
worn  adage,  but  among  the  drillers  the  modern  proverb  is 
that  there  is  "  Nothing  so  uncertain  as  oil !" 


CHAPTER  VI 
SOME  FAMOUS  BIG  STRIKES 

MORE  often  than  not  the  discovery  of  a  new  oil-producing 
territory  is  announced  to  the  world  at  large  by  what  is 
colloquially  described  as  a  "  gusher."  Although  this  phe- 
nomenon is  by  no  means  confined  to  new  fields,  such  occur- 
rences upon  existing  developed  areas  are  neither  so  spectac- 
ular, impressive,  nor  of  such  volume,  as  those  encountered 
upon  virgin  ground.  The  pioneer  interests  concerned  in 
the  exploitation  of  a  new  territory  as  a  rule  welcome  the 
gusher,  especially  if  it  assumes  huge  proportions.  It  acts 
as  an  excellent  advertisement,  public  attention  is  focussed 
upon  the  new  district,  and  it  proves  the  ground  in  no  un- 
certain manner.  In  some  instances,  particularly  in  the 
American  States,  a  big  "  gusher  "  has  been  allowed  to  have 
full  and  unrestricted  play  for  several  days,  merely  as  a 
spectacle.  Crowds  of  curiosity-provoked  people  will  make 
long  and  tedious  journeys  just  to  see  oil  spouting  from  the 
earth  in  a  huge  fountain.  Needless  to  say,  such  occurrences 
make  impressive  sights,  but  they  are  generally  to  be 
deplored.  Enormous  quantities  of  oil,  representing  huge 
sums,  run  to  waste,  to  be  lost  irretrievably. 

The  "  gusher  "  is  a  natural  wonder.  The  oil  is  confined 
in  the  sands  under  tremendous  pressure  by  the  gas  which 
it  has  emitted,  and  which  has  been  unable  to  find  a  vent 
through  which  to  escape  to  the  outer  air.  The  pressure  of 
the  earth  above  is  too  great  to  be  overcome  by  the 
collection  of  gas,  so  that  the  oil-bed  is  practically  a  huge 
combined  oil-tank  and  gasometer.  The  driller  arrives  upon 
the  scene,  and  his  drill,  chugging  merrily,  bores  a  hole  into 
the  earth's  crust.  As  it  sinks  deeper  and  deeper,  the  earth 
pressure  upon  the  gas  at  this  point  steadily  diminishes,  until 
74 


SOME  FAMOUS  BIG  STRIKES  75 

finally  it  becomes  less  than  the  upward  thrust  of  the  im- 
prisoned gas  below.  Directly  the  balance  of  power  is 
changed,  the  gas  asserts  itself  and  bursts  its  bonds.  The 
remaining  core  of  earth  below  the  drill  is  shattered  and 
pulverized,  and  the  gas  rushes  forth  with  tremendous  velocity 
and  power,  sweeping  all  before  it.  The  gas,  being  combined 
with  the  oil,  naturally  drags  the  latter  along  with  it.  The 
oil  gushes  from  the  earth  into  the  air;  hence  the  name 
"  gusher  "  or  "  spouter." 

The  pioneer  driller  bores  his  hole  with  caution.  He  knows 
fully  well  the  chances  are  a  thousand  to  one  if  oil  exists 
below  in  any  quantity,  that  it  will  come  out  with  a  mad 
rush  long  before  his  drill  has  completed  its  work;  conse- 
quently he  listens  anxiously  for  the  first  peculiar  signs  of  the 
coming  oil.  The  moment  he  hears  the  characteristic  music 
of  the  restless  gas,  he  hurriedly  abandons  his  position  and 
races  to  a  safe  distance.  If  the  strike  proves  a  big  one,  he 
will  witness  a  striking  spectacle;  the  oil  will  shatter  his 
derrick  and  drilling  plant,  reducing  it  to  matchwood,  send- 
ing the  pieces  sky-high,  just  as  if  a  huge  mine  of  dynamite 
placed  beneath  the  plant  had  been  fired.  When  the  gas  is 
in  a  terrific  hurry,  nothing  will  arrest  its  progress,  and  in  its 
mad  haste  to  escape  it  often  will  undo  the  driller's  work 
entirely,  by  smashing  up  and  expelling  his  sunken  tools 
and  pipe-casing  in  fantastic  fragments. 

During  recent  years  several  wonderful  gushers  have  been 
struck.  The  opening  of  a  new  field  in  the  Caucasian  oil 
district  generally  has  been  attended  by  tremendous  gushers. 
One  of  the  most  remarkable  of  these  was  upon  the  Bibi- 
Eibat  field,  in  1901.  The  well,  14  inches  in  diameter,  was 
sunk  to  a  depth  of  1,813  feet,  when  the  oil  asserted  itself 
in  no  uncertain  manner.  It  came  up  the  vent  with  terrific 
fury,  and  flew  into  the  air  in  a  straight  column  for  50  or 
60  feet,  when  it  opened  out  like  the  branches  of  a  tree  and  fell 
in  the  form  of  spray.  This  was  the  biggest  gusher  which 
had  been  encountered  up  to  this  time,  the  volume  of  oil 
discharged  into  the  air  and  lost  being  sufficient  to  represent 
many  millionaires.  As  much  of  the  oil  as  could  be  collected 


76  THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

was  gathered,  and  the  depressions  around  the  well  in  a  short 
time  were  huge  lakes  of  crude  oil.  Over  100,000  barrels  of 
oil  were  taken  from  this  spouter  in  the  course  of  twenty- 
four  hours.  Oil  actually  rained  upon  the  surrounding  town 
and  country,  those  who  failed  to  secure  shelter  in  time  being 
drenched  to  the  skin  with  pungent  thick  petroleum.  The 
well  continued  gushing  until  2,000,000  barrels  of  oil  had 
been  ejected  in  this  summary  manner,  when  it  stopped 
suddenly.  This  was  not  the  first  spouter  which  had  worried 
the  oil  interests  of  the  Bibi-Eibat  field,  because  some  years 
previously  a  big  spouter  wrought  widespread  damage.  On 
this  occasion,  owing  to  the  wind  which  prevailed,  a  deluge 
of  oil-drops  fell  upon  the  town  of  Baku,  some  two  and  a  half 
miles  distant,  while  the  country  lying  between  the  two 
points  was  saturated  with  oil.  In  the  Romani  district 
another  big  well  was  struck  in  December,  1901.  Its  control 
harassed  the  engineers  severely,  since  it  spouted  over  30,000 
barrels  a  day.  Some  1,000,000  barrels  of  oil  were  thrown 
out  during  the  month,  while  it  continued  to  yield  25,000 
barrels  a  day  steadily  through  the  following  January. 

In  the  latter  part  of  1898,  Captain  A.  F.  Lucas,  a  geologist 
of  Washington,  D.C.,  who  had  long  entertained  opinions 
that  oil  existed  in  Texas,  started  off  to  make  a  thorough 
prospect  of  the  "  Lone  Star  State."  After  roving  the  terri- 
tory which  he  considered  to  be  oil-bearing  for  some  two 
years,  he  finally  decided  to  make  a  trial  boring  at  Beaumont. 
The  derrick  was  set  up,  and  the  drills  commenced  to  drive 
downwards  into  the  earth.  On  January  10,  1901,  the 
drillers  noticed  a  commotion  in  the  well.  Recognizing  the 
import  of  the  agitation  and  noise,  they  stampeded  to  safety. 
They  had  barely  gained  a  safe  distance,  when  there  was  a 
terrific  hubbub.  Looking  towards  the  well,  they  were  sur- 
prised to  see  600  feet  length  of  4-inch  iron  pipe,  which  they 
had  sunk  into  the  ground,  shot  200  feet  into  the  air,  as  if 
from  a  gigantic  cannon.  The  piping  was  followed  by  an 
ear-splitting  hissing  of  the  escaping  gas,  and  a  huge  foun- 
tain of  oil. 

After  establishing  its  outlet,  the  spouter  settled  down  to 


By  courtesy  of  the  Oil  Well  Supply  Company 
HOW   OIL    IS   DRAWN*    FROM   THE   EARTH    IX   THE   CAUCASUS. 

The  "baler  "  is  a  cylindrical  vessel  some  30  feet  long,  which  is  lowered  into  the  well,  and  after 
being  rilled  is  drawn  to  the  surface  to  be  emptied. 

To  face  page  76. 


By  courtesy  of  the  Oil  Well  Supply  Company. ' 


"GASSING." 


During  the  drilling  operations  large  quantities  of  sand  are  often  discharged  into  the  air  by 
the  pressure  of  the  escaping  oil-gas. 


To  face  page  77. 


SOME  FAMOUS  BIG  STRIKES  77 

a  steady,  abundant  flow,  the  oil  flying  skywards  to  a  height 
of  150  feet  in  a  solid  column  6  inches  in  diameter,  and  then 
spraying.  Estimates  concerning  the  amount  of  oil  poured 
forth  varied  from  20,000  to  50,000  barrels  per  twenty-four 
hours,  and  although  there  was  no  means  of  gauging  the 
flow,  probably  the  lesser  figure  was  the  more  correct,  though 
the  former  quantity  undoubtedly  was  expelled  during  the 
first  few  hours  of  the  spouter's  activity.  The  enthusiasm 
aroused  by  this  gusher  was  intense.  It  was  given  absolute 
freedom  for  six  days,  merely  to  entertain  the  crowds  which 
flocked  to  the  spot,  and  to  indicate  to  the  oil  interests,  whose 
representatives  were  soon  upon  the  scene,  that  another 
gigantic  oil  district  had  been  revealed.  It  was  the  biggest 
gusher  that  had  been  struck  in  the  United  States  up  to  that 
time,  and  those  responsible  for  the  exploit  did  not  mean  to 
allow  the  fact  to  go  unheeded.  The  oil  tumbled  to  the  earth 
in  the  form  of  a  thick  spray,  and  filled  all  the  crevices,  ditches, 
and  depressions,  in  the  vicinity,  so  that  the  country  in  the 
immediate  proximity  of  the  spouter  was  converted  into  an 
oil-marsh. 

After  the  first  feelings  of  frenzied  excitement  had  died 
down,  strenuous  efforts  were  made  to  reduce  the  extent  of 
the  oil  losses.  Reservoirs  were  dug  hurriedly,  and  open 
ditches  were  run  from  the  well  to  these  catchpools.  Despite 
these  precautions,  however,  the  lakes  and  ponds  overflowed, 
and  more  oil  than  ever  was  collected  was  lost  for  ever.  One 
reservoir,  the  "  Higgins,"  was  a  huge  overflowing  lake  of  oil 
covering  several  acres,  and  20  feet  deep  at  places ;  in  fact,  the 
overflow  took  to  the  natural  watercourses,  and  finally 
escaped  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  Six  days  after  the  strike 
the  spouter  was  brought  under  control,  but  by  that  time 
it  is  estimated  that  over  1,000,000  barrels  of  oil  had  been 
lost. 

This  dramatic  strike  firmly  established  Texas  as  one  of 
the  great  oil-producing  States  of  the  country.  Subsequent 
geological  prospecting  ventured  the  opinion  that  the  field 
was  about  250  miles  in  length  by  150  miles  in  width. 
Pioneering  in  other  corners  of  the  State  was  prosecuted 


78  THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

energetically,  and  in  a  short  while  several  other  districts 
sprang  into  significance — Sour  Lake,  Saratoga,  Prairie,  and 
Humble. 

California  ranks  as  the  largest  producer  of  oil  in  the  United 
States,  and  the  industry  in  this  territory  received  a  further 
decisive  fillip  on  March  15,  1910,  when  the  Lake  View 
gusher  came  into  existence.  Previous  to  this  "  strike  "  six 
other  spouters  in  the  Coalinga  and  Midway  Maricopa  field 
had  come  to  life,  and  were  yielding  steadily.  The  Lake 
View  gusher,  however,  was  easily  a  record  for  the  State,  and 
the  interest  it  aroused  was  remarkable.  Its  yield  and 
financial  value  easily  exceeded  the  historic  Lucas  Well  of 
Texas,  because  in  this  instance  only  an  insignificant  per- 
centage of  the  flow  was  lost. 

This  strike  was  entirely  due  to  the  confidence,  persistency, 
and  excusable  defiance  of  a  single  man.  The  drills  had 
been  chugging  away  at  this  spot  for  some  time,  and  the  strike 
was  anxiously  awaited ;  but,  though  the  drills  bit  deeper  and 
deeper  into  the  earth,  no  sign  of  oil  was  revealed.  The 
directors  of  the  company  carrying  out  the  operations  haunted 
the  well,  anxiously  awaiting  the  success  that  seemed  loath 
to  come.  On  March  12  the  directors  gathered  at  the  board 
meeting  and  discussed  the  outlook  lugubriously.  After  a 
prolonged  and  animated  discussion  upon  the  situation,  they 
decided  to  stop  drilling,  and  to  prosecute  their  energies 
elsewhere.  Accordingly,  an  order  to  abandon  drilling  at 
once  was  drawn  up  and  despatched  to  the  superintendent. 
The  engineer  received  and  appreciated  the  instructions,  but, 
although  faced  with  the  penalty  of  instant  dismissal  for 
disobedience,  he  threw  the  order  on  one  side  and  intention- 
ally forgot  it.  He  proceeded  to  the  well  and  urged  the  men 
to  greater  effort.  His  call  was  answered ;  the  men  let  them- 
selves go,  and  within  a  short  time  drove  the  drills  47  feet 
deeper. 

As  the  man  who  had  flagrantly  disobeyed  official  instruc- 
tions expected,  there  came  an  ominous  rumble  in  the  well. 
The  men  scattered  in  all  directions;  the  oil  was  coming. 
There  was  a  terrible  roar,  violent  hissing,  and  then  the  men 


SOME  FAMOUS  BIG  STRIKES  79 

saw  the  top  of  the  derrick  wrenched  free  and  hurled  into  the 
air  by  a  column  of  oil.  As  the  well  had  been  driven  to  a 
depth  of  2,300  feet,  the  pressure  of  the  gas  was  tremendous. 
The  drillers  were  treated  to  a  magnificent  manifestation  of 
Nature's  pent-up  forces.  Pieces  of  rock  were  driven  upwards 
through  the  pipe  and  hurled  high  into  the  air.  The  excited 
drillers  took  the  precaution  to  get  a  respectable  distance 
away  from  the  gusher  in  order  to  escape  these  flying  missiles, 
because  the  eruption  was  terrifying. 

The  population  for  a  mile  around  was  alarmed  by  the 
terrible  roar.  They  hurried  out  of  their  homes  and  build- 
ings, convinced  that  they  were  going  to  be  overwhelmed  by 
disaster,  and  their  apprehensions  were  not  readily  quelled. 
The  din  was  deafening.  When  in  full  blast,  the  column  of 
oil  rose  to  a  height  of  140  feet,  and  the  spray,  caught  by  the 
wind,  was  whirled  two  and  a  half  miles  away.  The  sage- 
brush for  miles  around  was  logged  with  oil,  while  the  ground 
was  saturated  to  a  depth  of  several  inches.  The  petroleum 
wrought  havoc  with  ground  life.  Boys  who  hastened  to  the 
well  to  witness  the  unusual  sight  picked  up  dead  rabbits — 
killed  by  the  oil — by  the  score.  Taxicabs  and  public  service 
motor-cars  in  the  adjacent  towns  plied  a  thriving  business, 
carrying  crowds  of  sightseers  to  the  spot. 

The  greater  part  of  the  oil,  forced  into  the  air  at  the  rate 
of  50,000  barrels  per  day,  fell  around  the  derrick,  which  in 
a  short  time  was  standing  isolated  in  a  lake  of  oil.  Immedi- 
ately the  disintegrated  pieces  of  rock  ceased  to  be  discharged, 
the  drilling  forces  hurriedly  strove  to  control  the  well,  but 
the  flow  was  so  vicious  that  all  attempts  failed.  Then 
labourers  were  crowded  on  to  form  additional  pits  and  ponds 
to  collect  the  flow.  Three  powerful  pumps  were  brought 
up,  and  installed  to  lift  the  oil  from  the  sump-hole,  which 
was  overflowing,  into  the  huge  tanks  which  had  recently 
been  completed  near-by.  This  was  the  first  oil  to  enter 
these  receptacles,  and  it  was  fortunate  that  these  facilities 
were  available,  otherwise  heavy  losses  would  have  been 
incurred.  The  pumps  had  a  combined  capacity  of  25,000 
barrels  a  day,  and  by  running  them  at  full  pressure  they 


8o  THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

were  able  to  keep  the  flow  under  control.  As  the  tanks 
became  charged,  other  pumps  were  set  to  work  driving  the 
oil  on  a  journey  of  150  miles  from  Maricopa  to  Port  Harford, 
on  the  Pacific  seaboard. 

It  was  only  by  titanic  labour  that  the  oil  losses  were 
reduced  to  an  insignificant  degree.  When  the  gusher  first 
broke  into  activity,  the  flow  was  estimated  to  be  over  60,000 
barrels  per  day.  The  initial  pressure  becoming  expended, 
the  well  settled  down  to  a  steady  flow  of  about  42,000  to 
45,000  barrels  per  day  for  six  days.  Then  it  ceased  sud- 
denly. It  had  "  sanded  up  " — that  is,  the  well-hole  had 
become  choked  with  sand  and  detritus.  The  engineers, 
realizing  the  import  of  this  development,  concluded  that 
by  pushing  their  arrangements  forward  at  high  speed  they 
would  be  able  to  control  the  well.  But  they  had  miscalcu- 
lated the  enormous  forces  sleeping  below.  In  a  few  days 
the  pressure  of  the  accumulation  of  gases  became  sufficiently 
powerful  to  remove  the  obstruction.  With  a  deafening 
report  the  sand  was  blown  out,  and  the  well  resumed 
spouting  42,000  barrels  per  day. 

Owing  to  the  precautions  adopted  and  the  reduction  of 
the  oil  losses,  the  owners  of  the  well  netted  over  £60,000, 
or  $300,000,  during  the  first  sixteen  days  after  the  gusher 
came  into  action,  whilst  during  the  first  seven  weeks  over 
2,000,000  barrels  of  petroleum  were  gathered.  The  quantity 
lost,  owing  to  the  arrangements  completed  in  advance,  was 
insignificant.  The  gusher  did  not  maintain  its  yield  con- 
tinuously, but  was  somewhat  intermittent  in  its  action. 
After  spouting  to  a  height  of  240  feet  for  some  time,  it 
would  gradually  subside  until  the  oil  rose  only  to  a  height 
of  170  feet.  It  would  maintain  this  altitude  for  a  con- 
siderable period,  when  without  warning  it  would  revive, 
and  regain  a  height  of  240  feet. 

Owing  to  the  tremendous  force  with  which  the  oil  is 
expelled  from  the  earth,  a  gusher  offers  some  pretty  problems 
when  its  control  is  contemplated.  The  varying  character 
of  the  oil,  its  velocity,  and  the  local  conditions,  render  it 
impossible  to  lay  down  any  uniform  methods  for  arresting 


By  courtesy  of  the  Oil  If  ell  Supply  Company. 
THE   "LUCAS"   GUSHER   IX    FULL   BLAST. 


This  strike  of  oil  at  Beat 


lont  opened  the  Texas  oil-fields.     The  oil  flew  150  feet  into  the  air  at 
the  rate  of  20,000  to  50,000  barrels  a  day. 


To  face  page  So. 


*• 


THE   FAMOUS   POTRERO    DE    LLANO   XO.   4   BLOWING   THROUGH   THE 
GATE   VALVE. 


This  Mexican  gusher  was  struck  at  1,9 
gives  a  striking  impression  of  the  diameter 
control. 


feet,  and  spouted  125,000  barrels  a  day.   This  photograph 
r  of  the  column  of  oil  after  the  well  was  brought  under 


To  face  page  81 


SOME  FAMOUS  BIG  STRIKES  81 

the  flow.  Success  depends  essentially  upon  individual  in- 
genuity and  resource.  Fortunately,  there  is  no  lack  of 
either  of  these  attributes  among  those  engaged  in  winning 
petroleum  from  the  earth.  The  unexpected  lurks  in  so 
many  and  unfamiliar  forms  that  the  oil  engineer  never 
worries.  He  is  always  on  the  alert,  ready  for  any  emer- 
gency. 

In  the  early  days,  when  a  spouter  got  out  of  hand,  primi- 
tive methods  were  adopted,  and,  as  may  be  imagined, 
proved  abortive.  The  well-drillers,  from  lack  of  experience 
and  knowledge,  failed  to  realize  the  immense  forces  of 
Nature.  They  endeavoured  to  smother  the  fountain  with 
sand  and  water.  When  this  failed,  a  massive  square  shield 
was  contrived  from  heavy  balks  of  timber  secured  together 
by  bolts  and  dogs.  This  was  manoeuvred  into  a  convenient 
position  near  the  well,  raised  on  one  edge,  and  then  tipped 
or  pulled  over  upon  the  fountain  in  the  manner  of  a  lid 
shutting  a  box.  The  surprise  of  the  toilers,  when  they  saw 
their  cumbersome  weighty  device  shot  into  the  air  like 
a  blown  egg  upon  a  water-jet  or  wrenched  to  match- 
wood, may  be  imagined.  But  it  brought  home  to 
them  the  enormous  power  that  is  present  in  a  4  or 
6  inch  solid  column  of  oil  when  shot  from  the  bowels 
of  the  earth. 

In  one  instance  a  cap  fashioned  from  cast-iron,  and 
weighing  some  10  tons,  was  given  a  cupola  or  bell  shape. 
The  light,  flimsy  derrick  in  this  instance  had  been  blown 
clean  away  from  the  borehole,  leaving  the  column  of  oil 
quite  free  and  accessible.  The  oil  was  spouting  to  a  height 
of  about  90  feet,  and  the  heavy  cap  appeared  to  be  quite 
adequate  to  smother  it.  The  bell  was  manipulated  to  the 
edge  of  the  well-hole,  and  laid  upon  its  side.  Wire  cables, 
attached  to  shackles  fitted  to  the  bell,  were  passed  to  the 
opposite  side  of  the  well,  and  passed  round  windlasses. 
When  all  was  ready,  "  Heave  ho  !"  was  sounded,  and  the 
ropes  were  hauled  in  gradually,  pulling  the  bell  over. 
Presently,  after  being  sufficiently  tilted,  it  tumbled  over 
the  well-hole,  exactly  as  planned,  but  ere  the  workers  had 

6 


82  THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

time  to  congratulate  themselves  it  had  been  pushed  bodily 
over  in  another  direction,  and  the  gusher  was  still  free. 
Time  after  time  the  effort  was  repeated,  until  at  last  the 
bell  was  thrown  bodily  to  one  side  in  a  contemptuous 
manner  by  the  escaping  oil.  When  examined,  the  massive 
cap  presented  a  sorry  sight.  It  had  been  cut  and  riven  in 
a  fantastic  manner,  while  the  solid  crown  was  pitted  and 
worn  to  half  its  original  thickness.  The  gusher  eventually 
was  mastered,  but  not  before  it  had  expended  the  greater 
part  of  its  energy. 

In  the  Caspian  fields  the  shield  is  the  method  extensively 
adopted  to  check  the  flow  of  a  gusher.  The  shield  is  an 
elaborate  piece  of  work  built  up  of  timbers  and  steel,  and 
acts  similarly  to  a  lid,  the  oil  being  deflected  as  the  shield 
is  declined.  Extreme  skill  and  caution  is  demanded  in  the 
manipulation  of  the  device,  because,  the  oil  being  some- 
what heavily  impregnated  with  sand,  the  spouter  acts  very 
much  in  the  same  way  as  a  sand-blast.  Consequently,  when 
the  stream  of  oil  comes  into  contact  with  the  shield,  violent 
erosion  occurs.  It  is  no  uncommon  circumstance  for  the 
shield  to  be  worn  to  the  thickness  of  a  sheet  of  paper  within 
a  short  time,  and  often  it  will  be  perforated  like  a  sieve 
under  the  driving  action  of  the  sand.  These  measures,  how- 
ever, do  not  stifle  the  spouter  so  much  as  offering  means  to 
reduce  the  height  of  the  fountain,  so  that  the  oil  may  be 
more  easily  collected. 

The  control  of  the  Lakeview  Gusher  in  California  set  a 
pretty  tax  upon  ingenuity.  The  volition  of  the  oil  was 
revealed  by  the  demolition  of  the  derrick,  and  the  fact  that 
the  heavy  drilling  tools  were  driven  out  by  the  mad  rush 
of  the  petroleum  into  the  air.  As  the  flow  was  being  caught 
effectively,  no  effort  to  cap  the  well  was  made  for  several 
weeks,  the  engineers  hoping  that  it  might  expend  the 
greater  part  of  its  force  if  given  sufficient  time.  Finally, 
as  there  appeared  to  be  no  signs  of  the  spouter  dying  down 
to  enable  simple  means  of  controlling  the  flow  to  be  adopted, 
a  massive  roof  made  of  16  by  16  inch  timbers  was  built,  and 
dropped  lid-wise  over  the  mouth  of  the  borehole.  Its 


SOME  FAMOUS  BIG  STRIKES  83 

demolition  was  instantaneous.  The  spouting  oil  wrenched 
the  heavy  members  apart,  completing  destruction  by 
tearing  them  to  splinters  and  scattering  them  in  all 
directions. 

This  abortive  effort  demonstrated  that  more  ingenious 
means  were  requisite  to  achieve  success.  Capping  was  im- 
perative, because  tiny  fountains  had  broken  through  the 
shattered  earth's  crust  around  the  well,  and  were  playing 
merrily.  These  subsidiary  diminutive  gushers  were  effec- 
tively smothered  by  the  aid  of  successive  bulwarks  of  brush, 
logs,  and  sand.  A  massive  stockade  15  feet  in  height  was 
built  around  the  mouth  of  the  well.  Piles  were  driven,  and 
thick  balks  bolted  transversely  thereon,  forming  a  box- 
like  compartment.  The  vertical  piles  were  braced  by  sup- 
porting members  set  at  an  angle  of  about  30  degrees  on  the 
outer  side  of  the  wall,  and  secured  to  the  upper  ends  of  the 
former  by  notched  saddles  and  bolts.  The  lower  ends  of 
the  slanting  pieces  were  anchored  to  similar  thick  members 
set  at  right  angles  to  the  latter,  and  driven  deeply  into  the 
ground.  The  space  between  the  vertical  and  slanting 
timbers  was  filled  with  rock  and  debris  rammed  well  home, 
so  that  a  solidly  built,  substantial  embankment  surrounded 
the  mouth  of  the  well. 

On  one  side  of  the  embankment  a  slanting  runway  was 
provided,  and  on  this  a  massive  raft  was  built,  resting  upon 
the  runway  in  much  the  same  manner  as  a  vessel  lies  on  the 
launching  ways.  This  raft,  measuring  about  15  feet  wide 
by  20  feet  in  length,  was  built  of  timber  members,  disposed 
in  four  layers  set  transversely  to  one  another,  and  bolted 
solidly  together.  Heavy  wire  cables  were  then  secured  to 
each  corner  of  the  raft.  Those  at  the  two  lower  corners 
were  anchored  to  iron  pipes  buried  10  feet  in  the  ground. 
The  two  cables  secured  to  the  upper  corners  were  passed 
over  the  top  of  the  stockade,  one  on  either  side  of  the 
gusher.  During  one  of  the  periodical  lulls  in  the  activity 
of  the  spouter,  these  upper  cables  were  hauled  taut,  the 
raft  was  pulled  down  the  runway,  and  dragged  into  position 
over  the  mouth  of  the  stockade,  though  not  completely 


84  THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

occupying  the  space.  The  two  cables  which  had  served  to 
haul  the  roof  into  position  were  then  anchored  similarly  to 
buried  pipes.  In  this  manner  the  raft  was  virtually  poised 
in  mid-air,  supported  about  15  feet  above  the  borehole  by 
the  force  of  the  oil  playing  upon  its  underside,  and  pre- 
vented from  moving  sideways  by  the  anchoring  cables.  The 
gushing  oil,  striking  the  raft,  was  deflected  sidewise,  escaped 
through  the  space  between  the  edges  of  the  raft  and  the 
wall  of  the  stockade,  and  poured  down  the  sloping  banks 
of  the  latter  into  the  sluices  which  were  provided  to  carry 
it  away  to  the  sump. 

Although  this  ingenious  device  did  not  completely  smother 
the  gusher,  it  effectively  reduced  its  height  from  240  to  15 
feet.  The  raft  stood  up  to  its  work,  and  the  scheme  proved 
financially  successful,  since  the  loss  of  oil  which  had  previ- 
ously occurred  in  the  form  of  driving  spray  was  overcome, 
thereby  enabling  the  owners  to  derive  more  profit  from  the 
well  than  had  been  the  case  before  the  gusher  was  con- 
quered. 

Although  the  United  States  and  the  Caucasus  have  become 
far-famed  for  some  big  "  gushers  "  which  have  been  struck, 
the  most  sensational  occurrences  of  this  character  are 
peculiar  to  Mexico.  The  interests  controlled  by  Lord  Cow- 
dray  revealed  the  wonderful  oil  reserves  of  the  Central 
American  Republic  by  striking  the  famous  "  Dos  Bocas." 
Well,  the  story  of  which,  as  it  was  lost  entirely  by  fire,  is 
related  in  another  chapter.  In  January,  1910,  another 
gusher,  known  as  the  Potrero  de  Llano  No.  4  awoke.  Un- 
doubtedly this  is  the  greatest  gusher  which  has  yet  been 
struck  and  brought  under  control,  though  owing  to  the 
immensity  of  the  flow — it  was  practically  an  oil  volcano  or 
geyser— its  conquest  was  attended  with  considerable  anxiety 
and  difficulty. 

The  proved  gusher  territory  of  Mexico  lies  between  Tam- 
pico  and  Tuxpan,  and  the  Potrero  field  lies  in  this  area. 
The  proving  of  this  district  was  commenced  in  1909,  and 
encouraging  indications  of  its  wealth  were  contributed  in 
January,  1910,  when  the  first  well  was  brought  into  bearing 


SOME  FAMOUS  BIG  STRIKES  85 

after  the  drills  had  been  carried  to  a  depth  of  1,933  feet. 
As  this  well  never  got  out  of  hand,  it  was  shut  down,  for  the 
simple  reason  that  there  were  neither  tankage  facilities  nor 
pipe-line  connections  to  receive  the  product.  Further  drill- 
ing, however,  was  pushed  forward  actively,  the  engineers 
having  no  idea  that  they  were  destined  to  make  a  strike 
which  would  eclipse  the  never-to-be-forgotten  "  Dos 
Bocas." 

The  oil-sands  in  connection  with  No.  4  well  were  pene- 
trated at  a  depth  of  1,911  feet.  Directly  they  were  tapped, 
the  fact  that  a  heavy  yield  had  been  unlocked  was  revealed. 
The  oil  flew  out  in  a  tremendous  column,  and,  although  every 
effort  was  made  to  shut  it  down,  it  resisted  control.  It 
increased  in  intensity,  and  in  a  short  time  125,000  barrels 
of  oil  were  being  belched  into  the  air.  The  well  ran  wild 
for  weeks,  as  it  resisted  every  attempt  to  control  it.  The 
crude  oil  ran  hither  and  thither  over  the  surrounding  country, 
forming  pools  and  flooding  extensive  areas.  Dos  Bocas  and 
the  terrors  of  fire  had  not  been  forgotten.  The  serious  pos- 
sibility of  the  spouter  becoming  ignited  was  fully  appreci- 
ated, and  unceasing  vigilance  and  elaborate  measures  were 
adopted  to  prevent  such  a  contingency.  The  gravest 
dangers  arose  from  incendiarism.  In  the  district  were 
numbers  of  dissatisfied  Indians,  and  it  was  feared  that  some 
of  their  more  irresponsible  and  militant  members  might 
deliberately  fire  the  well.  The  Mexican  rural es  were  des- 
patched to  the  scene,  and  patrolled  the  country  day  and 
night.  Despite  this  organization,  several  of  the  pools  were 
fired  surreptitiously,  but,  owing  to  the  elaborate  precautions 
and  forces  available,  they  were  extinguished  in  the  incipient 
stages. 

As  the  possibility  of  shutting  down  the  flow  was  entirely 
out  of  the  question  until  the  proper  facilities  arrived,  the 
collection  of  the  oil  was  taken  in  hand.  The  enormous  yield 
demanded  heroic  measures.  A  huge  force  of  2,500  Indians 
and  Mexicans — a  motley  crew — was  recruited,  and  regulars 
were  supplied  by  the  Government  to  keep  them  under  con- 
trol. The  engineers  planned  the  hurried  erection  of  an 


86  THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

enormous  temporary  reservoir,  or  earth-tank—virtually 
a  levelled  stretch  of  land  enclosed  by  a  substantial 
retaining  wall.  Some  45  acres  were  railed  off  for  this 
purpose,  and  a  force  of  1,500  natives  kept  continuously 
at  work,  in  day  and  night  shifts,  piling  up  the  earthen 
walls. 

While  this  task  was  under  way,  other  gangs  were  em- 
ployed in  laying  the  lead  lines  from  the  well  to  the  reservoir. 
Two  8-inch  lines  were  laid,  and  were  connected  with  the 
casing-head  of  the  well.  An  overflow  or  waste  line  was 
laid  from  the  reservoir  to  the  adjacent  waterway,  so  that 
the  surplus  oil  from  the  tank  might  effect  a  free  and  safe 
escape.  As  the  well  continued  to  discharge  well  over  100,000 
barrels  of  oil  per  day,  it  was  realized  that  the  reservoir 
would  soon  become  filled.  Accordingly,  arrangements  for 
capping  the  well  were  pushed  forward  feverishly,  so  that 
it  might  be  brought  under  control  at  the  earliest  possible 
moment. 

The  capacity  of  the  reservoir  was  approximately  2,500,000 
barrels  (105,000,000  gallons).  When  filled,  the  lake  was 
about  30  feet  deep  in  the  centre.  The  oil  expelled  was 
found  to  be  remarkably  clean,  being  absolutely  free  from 
sand  and  water.  In  ninety  days  the  well  yielded  no  less 
than  8,000,000  barrels  of  oil,  and  the  noise  of  the  gusher 
when  in  full  blast  was  so  terrific  that  it  could  be  heard 
easily  from  a  distance  of  eight  miles.  While  the  Potrero  de 
Llano  No.  4  ranks  as  one  of  the  most  prolific  spouters 
which  ever  has  been  tapped  in  any  part  of  the  world,  the 
engineers  made  another  remarkable  strike  on  July  u,  1912, 
at  2,000  feet,  in  the  new  Tiera  Amarilla  field,  one  and  a  half 
miles  distant.  At  this  depth  a  well  yielding  25,000  barrels 
per  day  was  brought  in,  and  the  engineers  express  the 
confident  opinion  that,  if  drilling  had  been  continued 
a  few  feet  deeper,  a  gusher  equal  to,  if  not  rivalling,  the 
famous  No.  4  at  Potrero  would  have  been  brought  into 
activity. 

This  gusher  was  brought  under  control  by  the  installation 
of  a  massive  gate-valve.  When  the  proportions  of  the 


MEXICAN'    OIL-WELL   COMMENCING   TO    FLOW. 


BUILDING   THE    EARTH    RESERVOIR   TO    RECEIVE   THE    FLOW    FROM 
POTRERO    DE    LLANO    NO.   4. 

2,500  Indians  and  Mexicans  were  required  to  complete  this  great  work. 


SOME  FAMOUS  BIG  STRIKES  87 

spouter  had  been  realized,  a  valve  was  designed,  and  an 
American  firm  was  urged  to  hasten  its  construction,  since 
it  was  imperative  to  set  it  in  position  with  all  speed,  so  as 
to  reduce  the  loss  of  oil.  The  valve  was  designed  to  with- 
stand a  pressure  of  over  600  pounds,  which  was  the  force 
exerted  at  the  mouth  of  the  well.  The  gate- valve  was  set 
in  position,  and  bolted  to  the  top  of  the  pipe-casing,  the 
valve  being  left  open  during  the  task,  so  as  not  to  impede 
the  escape  of  the  oil.  From  the  valve  pipes  extended  to  the 
sump  or  pumping-station.  By  the  time  the  gate-valve  had 
been  set,  the  pipe-lines  had  been  extended  into  the  Potrero 
field,  and  the  valve-gate  was  gradually  closed,  until  at  last 
it  held  a  pressure  of  300  pounds.  When  the  transportation 
facilities  were  completed,  the  well  was  shut  down  to  about 
40,000  barrels  per  day,  which  represented  the  maximum 
capacity  of  the  pipe-lines  available  to  transport  the  oil  to 
the  coast. 

To  manipulate  a  gusher,  even  of  comparatively  small 
value,  when  it  has  been  capped,  is  not  so  simple  as  it  appears. 
A  British  engineer  in  the  Mexican  oil-fields  instructed  a 
native  to  shut  down  a  well.  The  man  went  off  entertaining 
quaint  and  certainly  hazy  ideas  of  the  pressure  exerted  by 
a  spouter.  Instead  of  turning  off  the  gate-valve  slowly, 
he  thought  it  could  be  shut  off  summarily  like  the  domestic 
water-tap.  But  he  was  made  to  repent  of  his  haste.  The 
oil  refused  to  submit  to  such  ill-treatment.  The  man  hur- 
riedly closed  the  valve,  and  to  his  intense  astonishment  per- 
formed an  unexpected  aerial  flight,  followed  by  a  series  of 
unrehearsed  backward  somersaults,  while  he  was  drenched 
to  the  skin  by  petroleum  in  the  bargain.  The  oil  had  burst 
the  valve !  Ever  after  that  individual  entertained  an  in- 
tense respect  for  a  gusher,  even  when  it  was  harnessed,  and 
considered  that  a  gate- valve  was  a  far  more  dangerous  con- 
trivance, and  demanding  more  delicate  handling,  than  one 
would  suppose. 

Although  the  spouter  makes  a  peculiar  appeal  to  the 
driller,  and  is  a  fascinating  spectacle  for  the  curious  public, 
it  is  viewed  with  mixed  feelings  by  the  interests  to  whom  it 


88  THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

belongs.  This  is  especially  the  case  when  all  attempts  to 
control  the  well  prove  abortive,  and  no  conveniences  for 
receiving  and  storing  the  oil  are  available.  The  enormous 
losses  upon  the  Beaumont  field  in  Texas  were  entirely  due 
to  lack  of  enterprise  born  of  surprise.  Weeks  elapsed  before 
metal  for  the  erection  of  tanks  arrived  upon  the  scene, 
while  a  year  passed  before  pipe-line  communication  with 
the  refineries  was  established.  The  men  upon  the  spot  were 
compelled  to  make  shift  with  what  they  could  contrive. 
Open  lakes  were  built,  and,  as  these  proved  insufficient,  open 
ditches  were  dug. 

While  the  spouter  removes  the  necessity  to  pump  or  other- 
wise raise  the  oil,  the  quantity  produced  is  far  from  always 
being  a  blessing.  Often  the  well-owner  would  prefer  it  to 
flow  more  quietly,  since  then  he  would  be  spared  many 
losses  of  a  varied  character.  The  Bibi-Eibat  field,  being  on 
Government  territory,  which  is  leased  under  a  fixed  royalty 
of  5  kopeks  per  pood— approximately  ijd.,  or  2-5  cents, 
per  36' i  pounds — the  forced  necessity  to  dispose  of  the 
abundant  yield  of  a  gusher  at  a  low  price,  owing  to  the 
absence  of  sufficient  storage  or  transportation  facilities,  does 
not  leave  an  appreciable  margin  of  profit,  more  particularly 
when  the  claims  for  damages  have  been  liquidated.  In  the 
case  of  the  1901  spouter,  the  item  of  compensation  was 
serious,  inasmuch  as  property  for  over  a  mile  on  the  lee  side 
of  the  spouter  was  flooded.  A  village  was  overwhelmed  by 
the  visitation,  and  this  had  to  be  repainted  by  the  oil-field 
lessees.  This  was  not  the  first  occasion  upon  which  this 
particular  village  received  refurbishing  at  the  expense  of 
the  oil-wells.  When  the  previous  spouter  sprang  into 
existence,  the  colony,  owing  to  the  prevailing  wind,  suffered 
from  a  drenching  oil-storm.  The  bill  for  damages  on  this 
occasion  amounted  to  about  £10,000,  or  $50,000.  Every 
house  in  the  village,  as  well  as  the  local  church,  had  to  be 
given  a  new  coat  of  paint,  and  the  well-owner  had  to  settle 
the  account. 

In  Roumania,  too,  anxious  times  are  experienced  when  a 
gusher  comes  to  life.  Here  the  spouters  are  not  comparable 


SOME  FAMOUS  BIG  STRIKES  89 

in  violence  or  magnitude  with  those  of  the  Caucasus  or 
Mexico,  but  they  can  wreak  destruction  unless  elaborate 
and  hasty  safety  measures  are  adopted.  The  rugged  con- 
figuration of  the  country  is  an  adverse  factor.  The  villages 
are  invariably  in  the  valleys,  and  a  gusher  breaking  loose 
upon  a  neighbouring  hill  may  easily  cause  a  terrible  state 
of  affairs.  Huge  dikes  are  thrown  up  on  the  hillside,  and 
the  cascades  of  oil  thus  are  dammed  back  until  means  of 
connecting  the  impounded  oil  with  the  storage  tanks  are 
completed.  The  pressure  upon  the  embankments,  however, 
is  enormous,  subjecting  the  hastily-fashioned  work  to  tre- 
mendous strains.  Unceasing  vigilance  is  required  until  the 
pressure  can  be  relieved. 

The  life  of  a  gusher  varies  considerably.  It  depends  upon 
the  quantity  of  oil  and  gas  present  below,  and  the  number 
of  points  at  which  the  latter  is  able  to  escape  through 
additional  wells.  Obviously,  if  a  field  has  only  one  outlet, 
the  maximum  quantity  of  oil  will  be  expelled  through  that 
vent  until  the  pressure  below  has  been  expended.  On  the 
other  hand,  each  succeeding  well  tapping  the  same  deposit 
serves  to  reduce  the  pressure  upon  the  initial  borehole.  In 
Texas,  owing  to  the  frenzied  haste  with  which  other  wells 
were  sunk  by  the  speculative  drillers  in  close  proximity 
to  the  first  spouter,  the  pressure  was  relieved  very 
speedily. 

If  the  field  is  not  tapped  further,  and  the  first  gusher  is 
left  to  itself,  it  may  continue  to  yield  for  years,  the  force  of 
the  discharge  gradually  diminishing  as  the  reserves  of  oil 
are  depleted.  At  the  same  time,  the  expelling  force  is 
maintained  more  or  less  because  the  displaced  oil  is  sup- 
planted by  salt  water,  which  tends  to  maintain  the  pressure 
to  a  certain  degree.  The  "  Lucas  "  spouter  came  to  an 
untimely  end.  Fire  swept  the  field,  ignited  this  well,  and 
burnt  it  out,  so  that  at  the  end  it  gushed  only  salt  water. 
"  Dos  Bocas  "  shared  a  similar  fate.  Many  of  the  small 
gushers  die  a  natural  death,  or  in  time  are  abandoned 
because  the  daily  yield  is  so  small  as  to  induce  the  owner 
to  devote  his  energies  elsewhere,  although  someone  else 


90  THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

fired  with  the  money-from-oil  fever  may  probably  take  it 
over,  and  hold  it  until  the  last  remunerative  gallon  of 
petroleum  has  been  given  up.  In  the  Caucasus  the  majority 
expend  their  force  and  become  controlled  in  due  course. 
Then  "  bailing  "  has  to  be  undertaken  to  draw  the  quiescent 
oil  from  below. 


CHAPTER  VII 
TAKING  CARE  OF  THE  "  CRUDE  " 

"  FIRST  strike  your  oil,  and  then  collect  it !"  This  is  the 
precept  of  the  oil-producer,  and  although  the  initiated  might 
feel  disposed  to  cavil  at  the  idea  of  drilling  for  oil  without 
making  even  rough-and-ready  arrangements  for  collecting 
the  resultant  product,  the  attitude  of  the  gambling  driller 
is  perfectly  explicable.  He  knows  only  too  well  that  his 
calling  is  of  the  will-o'-the-wisp  order;  consequently,  he 
regards  the  idea  of  making  provision  for  the  collection  of 
the  "  crude,"  as  the  raw  petroleum  is  called  in  the  parlance 
of  the  oil  world,  before  he  has  found  it  as  somewhat  fan- 
tastic. Although  gushers  are  struck,  it  must  be  borne  in 
mind  that  spouting  wells  are  more  the  exception  than  the 
rule.  For  every  gusher  which  is  brought  to  life,  hundreds 
of  other  wells  are  sunk  from  which  oil  cannot  be  withdrawn 
except  by  recourse  to  pumping. 

Of  course,  the  fallacy  of  the  axiom  is  revealed  at  times, 
and  in  a  somewhat  disconcerting  manner.  The  drill  bites 
into  the  paying  sands,  and  the  oil  bursts  forth  vigorously. 
The  driller  is  caught  unawares.  Oil  there  is  in  plenty,  but 
he  cannot  save  and  hold  a  drop,  pending  the  arrangements 
of  the  refiner  for  its  collection.  If  one  be  labouring  with 
the  drills  in  a  proved  territory,  the  anxieties  of  collection 
are  small.  The  chances  are  a  thousand  to  one  that  there 
are  available  tankage  facilities  in  the  immediate  vicinity, 
and  that  the  pipe-line  system  serves  the  field.  But  in  a 
new  country  the  problem  assumes  a  very  different  guise. 
Once  the  oil  is  tapped,  feverish  haste  must  be  manifested 
and  ingenious  measures  extemporized  to  catch  the  precious 
liquid.  Where  the  driller,  producer,  pipe-line,  and  refining 
interests  are  combined,  the  question  is  not  so  complex. 

91 


92  THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

The  trial  borings  reveal  the  existence  of  oil,  so,  while  the 
first  well  is  being  drilled,  arrangements  for  collecting  the 
eventual  flow  with  the  minimum  of  waste  are  taken  in 
hand.  But  when  the  drilling  or  producing  interests  are 
entirely  distinct  from  the  transportation  and  refining  forces, 
quite  a  different  situation  prevails.  The  two  issues  work 
independently,  and  co-operation  is  resolved  into  the  mere 
question  that,  if  the  producer  strikes  oil,  the  refiner  will 
undertake  to  purchase  it. 

This  is  one  point  in  which  the  Standard  Oil  Company 
emphasizes  the  efficiency  of  its  organization.  It  spares  no 
effort  to  secure  all  the  oil  possible.  The  more  it  can  handle, 
the  more  powerful  the  position  it  can  command  among  the 
world's  markets.  It  is  not  a  producer  to  any  pronounced 
extent ;  it  buys  from  the  speculative  element.  The  gambling 
driller  knows  fully  well  that  he  has  only  got  to  strike  oil, 
and  the  above  company  will  take  care  of  it  for  him.  He  is 
not  even  forced  to  barter  with  the  company  concerning  the 
price  to  be  paid  for  his  product.  Contracts  in  this  connec- 
tion are  foreign  to  its  policy.  The  driller  or  producer  is 
given  a  square  deal;  the  open  market  is  the  solitary  and 
automatic  arbitrator.  The  price  of  crude  oil  fluctuates 
daily  in  all  parts  of  the  world  in  exactly  the  same  manner 
as  grain,  coal,  and  other  commodities. 

The  Standard  Oil  Company  has  reduced  what  is  colloqui- 
ally termed  "  taking  care  of  the  crude  "  to  a  fine  art,  and 
this  is  one  explanation  for  the  powerful  sway  it  wields  at 
present  in  the  oil  world.  It  makes  no  attempt  to  curtail 
output:  that  would  be  fatal  to  its  welfare.  At  times  it  will 
do  everything  in  its  power  to  frustrate  a  mad  rush  to  a  new 
territory,  because  its  unique  experience  has  revealed  the 
iniquities  of  such  booms.  Wells  are  sunk  in  frantic  haste, 
oil  is  drawn  from  the  earth  in  prolific  rivers,  and  because 
there  are  no  collecting  facilities  available  it  runs  to  waste 
or  is  sold  at  ruinous  prices. 

In  one  American  rush  a  few  years  ago,  where  discretion 
among  the  drillers  was  thrown  to  the  four  winds,  wells  were 
sunk  so  rapidly  and  in  such  numbers  that  the  country  for 


TAKING  CARE  OF  THE  "  CRUDE  "  93 

miles  around  became  saturated  with  oil.  Its  disposal  was 
impossible  at  any  price.  One  cent,  or  one  halfpenny,  per 
gallon  was  its  market  value,  but  that  was  purely  a  fictitious 
quotation,  because  there  was  no  market.  The  railways  were 
quite  inadequate  to  handle  the  glut,  tanks  were  lacking, 
and  pipe-line  communication  was  hundreds  of  miles  away. 
Barely  i  per  cent,  of  the  petroleum  drawn  from  the  earth 
was  sold.  The  producers  assailed  the  Standard  Oil  Com- 
pany for  not  displaying  greater  energy  in  supplying  tankage 
and  pipe-line  facilities,  but  the  refining  company  refused  to 
crowd  on  further  pressure. 

In  disgust  the  drillers  turned  to  independent  concerns,  and 
sought  similar  assistance,  but  to  their  intense  disappoint- 
ment they  received  no  warmer  comfort.  Neither  one  nor 
the  other  was  prepared  to  rush  in  to  save  the  frenzied  oil- 
boomers.  If  they  would  wait  until  the  facilities  could  be 
provided,  then  they  could  go  ahead  and  drill  with  as  much 
zeal  as  they  felt  disposed  to  display,  because  it  would  be 
possible  to  take  care  of  every  gallon  of  oil  obtained.  The 
producers  declined  to  listen  to  words  of  wisdom,  but  went 
blindly  forward,  and  some  time  elapsed  before  they  came 
to  their  senses  and  appreciated  the  logical  reasoning  of  the 
refiners.  Then  they  ceased  operations,  and  marked  time 
until  the  tanks  and  pipe-lines  were  completed,  when  activity 
once  more  burst  forth.  The  crisis,  however,  was  past.  The 
refiners  could  take  care  of  every  drop  of  oil  extracted  from 
Mother  Earth,  and  had  a  respectable  margin  of  safety  also 
for  unforeseen  eventualities.  In  this  particular  boom  more 
men  were  ruined,  although  they  struck  oil,  than  if  their 
drills  had  missed  the  sands,  merely  because  they  were  blind 
and  deaf  to  sound  commercial  argument. 

The  tank  represents  the  dividing-line  between  the  pro- 
ducer and  the  refiner.  It  is  the  point  where  the  latter 
assumes  control  of  the  product.  Care  must  be  taken  by 
the  producer  to  reduce  the  wastage  of  petroleum  to  the 
minimum.  This  is  the  one  phase  in  which  the  American 
company  excels,  in  which  the  organization  and  efficiency 
of  its  departments  are  most  conspicuously  revealed.  It  is 


94  THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

not  a  producer  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  term.  Barely  15  per 
cent,  of  the  total  petroleum  produced  in  the  country  issues 
from  wells  owned  or  leased  by  the  Standard.  It  is  essen- 
tially a  purchaser,  transporter,  and  refiner  of  crude  oils. 
Incidentally,  this  is  the  most  expensive  issue  of  the  problem. 
A  well  may  cost  only  £250  ($1,250),  but  the  collection,  con- 
veyance, and  storage,  of  the  yield  from  that  well  may 
involve  an  outlay  of  thousands.  To  maintain  such  a  posi- 
tion demands  enormous  capital,  highly  trained  officials,  and 
well  equipped  departments. 

The  first  move  is  the  provision  of  tankage  facilities  for 
the  storage  of  the  oil  as  it  issues  from  the  well.  These  vary 
according  to  the  yield  of  the  field.  If  it  is  normal,  the  oil 
may  be  pumped  into  tanks  of  400  barrels  capacity;  if  heavy, 
the  tanks  may  be  of  sufficient  dimensions  to  receive  35,000 
barrels  or  more.  Standardization  and  organization  are 
revealed  very  potently  in  this  branch  of  the  industry.  The 
composition  of  the  metal,  the  dimensions  of  the  plates,  and 
the  methods  of  erection,  are  standardized  rigidly.  Conse- 
quently, the  despatch  of  a  consignment  for  a  tank  of  any 
desired  capacity  may  be  completed  within  a  few  minutes 
of  the  receipt  of  telegraphic  instructions.  The  methods  of 
erection  are  simplified  to  a  remarkable  degree.  In  Great 
Britain  elaborate  scaffolding  would  be  demanded  to  set  the 
walls,  and  more  time  would  be  expended  upon  this  pre- 
liminary than  actual  setting  of  the  steel.  In  the  United 
States  the  scaffolding  is  of  the  simplest  character.  It 
appears  to  be  extremely  flimsy  and  dangerous,  but  accidents 
to  the  men  specializing  in  this  work  are  rare.  Scaffolding 
proceeds  step  by  step  with  the  growth  of  the  tank  walls. 
One  does  not  impede  the  progress  of  the  other,  and  when 
at  last  the  tank  is  completed,  the  scaffolding  can  be  de- 
molished with  amazing  speed,  and  packed  ready  for  removal 
to  the  next  site.  The  resources  and  possibilities  of  the 
Standard  Oil  Company  in  this  one  direction  were  revealed 
very  strikingly  during  the  Kansas  oil-boom.  A  tank  of 
35,ooo  barrels  capacity  was  commenced  every  twenty-four 
hours,  and  each  tank  was  completed  in  five  days— that  is 


TAKING  CARE  OF  THE  "  CRUDE  "  95 

to  say,  the  storage  units  were  brought  into  service  at  the 
rate  of  three  every  fortnight.  In  fact,  the  Kansas  rush  was 
so  strenuous,  and  the  demand  for  storage  facilities  so  in- 
sistent, that  directly  the  walls  were  completed  pumps  were 
set  going  driving  the  oil  into  the  tank.  Often  before  the 
roof  was  completed  the  tank  had  received  its  full  charge  of 
the  crude. 

This  perfection  of  operation  is  not  peculiar  to  any  one 
concern.  All  the  foremost  companies  are  equally  well 
equipped  with  such  facilities,  not  only  in  the  United  States, 
but  in  other  countries  as  well.  In  Mexico,  for  instance, 
although  the  labour  problem  there  is  somewhat  more  com- 
plex and  harassing  as  compared  with  the  United  States,  the 
interests  controlled  by  Lord  Cowdray  have  accomplished 
performances  which  vie  in  speed  and  smartness  with  the 
premier  achievements  of  the  Standard  Oil  Company.  In 
California  the  Union  Oil  Company,  and  in  the  Dutch  East 
Indies  the  Dutch  interests,  can  point  to  equally  noteworthy 
achievements  in  their  respective  spheres  of  influence. 

The  refining  interests  provide  tank  facilities  at  various 
strategical  points.  Here  long  rows  of  huge  tanks  are  set 
up,  forming  what  are  known  as  "  tank  farms."  Pipe-lines 
connect  these  farms  with  the  small  tanks  receiving  the  oil 
from  the  wells.  It  is  quite  possible  for  one  farm  to  hold 
2,000,000  barrels  or  more  of  oil,  and  may  represent  the 
contributions,  bought  and  paid  for,  from  200  to  300  pro- 
ducers, according  to  the  yield  of  the  adjacent  fields  and  the 
daily  flow  of  the  individual  oil-wells.  In  the  Kansas  field 
the  Standard  Oil  Company  has  had  as  many  as  21,000,000 
barrels  of  oil  in  stock  upon  the  farms,  representing  a  value 
varying  between  $12,000,000  and  $15,000,000  (from 
£2,400,000  to  £3,000,000). 

During  the  Calif ornian  oil-boom  the  enormous  flow  of 
petroleum  overtaxed  the  facilities  and  equipments  of  even 
the  foremost  companies.  The  Kern  River  field,  although 
covering  "a  territory  of  barely  five  square  miles,  produced 
about  32,000,000  barrels  from  876  wells  during  1904. 
The  yield  doubled  within  a  single  twelvemonth.  No  fewer 


96  THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

than  60,000  barrels  were  shipped  from  the  fields  daily ;  but 
the  oil  accumulated  at  such  a  rapid  rate  that  a  serious  crisis 
appeared  imminent. 

The  Standard  Oil  Company  entered  the  market,  and 
within  a  short  time  became  the  largest  individual  purchaser 
of  the  raw  product.  It  laid  down  tanks  having  an  aggregate 
capacity  of  6,000,000  barrels,  but  these  were  soon  charged 
to  overflowing.  The  output  of  the  wells  gave  no  signs  of 
diminishing.  On  the  contrary,  owing  to  the  activity  of  the 
producers,  there  was  the  likelihood  of  its  being  increased 
considerably,  despite  the  fact  that  the  price  of  the  crude 
sank  as  low  as  20  and  even  14  cents  (lod.  to  7d.)  per  barrel. 

Although  the  Standard  Oil  Company  concentrated  its 
tank-erecting  department  upon  the  provision  of  further 
storage  facilities,  they  could  not  keep  pace  with  the  supply. 
It  was  impossible  to  consummate  this  end  with  the  stan- 
dardized steel  tubular  tanks,  even  of  the  maximum  capacity. 
Accordingly  a  new  method  was  inaugurated.  Instead  of 
erecting  circular  steel  structures  above  the  level  of  the 
ground,  it  embarked  upon  sunken  reservoirs,  which  were 
virtually  immense  holes  in  the  earth.  They  are  circular  in 
form,  and  vary  from  400  to  500  feet  in  diameter  by  14  to 
16  feet  in  depth.  The  inner  face  of  the  embankments  and 
the  floor  of  the  first  tanks  of  this  type  were  given  a  coat  of 
cement  to  obviate  losses  by  seepage,  but  finally  this  pre- 
caution was  abandoned,  owing  to  delays  and  expense,  in 
favour  of  ramming  and  tamping  the  earth  thoroughly  before 
the  oil  was  admitted.  A  wooden  roof  of  i-inch  boarding 
nailed  upon  the  skeleton  of  joists  is  provided,  and  is  carried 
upon  heavy  timber  supports  extending  to  the  floor  of  the 
reservoir.  The  roof  was  finally  covered  with  tarred  paper 
to  protect  the  contents  from  the  elements.  Not  only  were 
these  tanks  completed  speedily,  but  were  of  far  greater 
capacity  than  would  have  been  possible  with  the  orthodox 
steel  plating,  the  largest  tanks  being  able  to  receive  500,000 
barrels  of  oil.  In  this  manner  the  question  of  storing  the 
enormous  output  of  the  wells  was  solved  completely,  and 
the  necessity  to  shut  down  some  of  the  wells,  so  as  to  bring 


THE    GATE    VALVE   WHEREWITH   THE    MEXICAN'   GUSHER    POTRERO    DE 
LLAXO    XO.   4   WAS   BROUGHT   UXDER   CONTROL. 

To  face  page  96. 


TAKING  CARE  OF  THE  "  CRUDE  "  97 

the  daily  yield  within  the  compass  of  existing  tankage 
facilities  was  obviated.  Moreover,  the  provision  of  these 
tanks  enabled  the  market  price  of  the  oil  to  be  increased  to 
the  normal  and  more  remunerative  figure. 

When  the  San  Joaquin  Valley  oil- fields  came  into  activity, 
the  overwhelming  yield  of  oil  caused  a  similar  crisis  to  that 
which  had  been  experienced  at  Kern  River.  It  was  idle  to 
contemplate  coping  with  the  situation  by  means  of  the 
ordinary  steel  tanks,  so  the  Union  Oil  Company  evolved 
another  ingenious  idea.  Designs  were  completed  and  con- 
tracts awarded  for  the  construction  of  two  reinforced  con- 
crete reservoirs,  each  capable  of  containing  1,000,000  barrels 
of  oil.  The  speedy  provision  of  these  tanks  was  imperative 
in  order  to  avoid  financial  disaster,  so  the  builders  were 
held  up  to  a  strict  undertaking,  which  called  for  the  com- 
pletion of  the  work  within  four  months  from  the  date  of 
the  contract,  with  a  penalty  of  £20,  or  $100,  per  day  for 
every  day  exceeding  the  specified  time. 

This  move  represented  the  most  important  of  its  char- 
acter ever  attempted  in  the  Californian  oil-fields  in  con- 
nection with  the  storage  of  the  crude,  while  the  tanks  rank 
among  the  largest  oil-reservoirs  ever  constructed  upon  ferro- 
concrete lines.  They  were  placed  at  San  Luis  Obispo,  and 
were  designed  to  receive  the  oil  delivered  through  the  pipe- 
line system  which  was  undertaken  at  the  same  time.  Each 
reservoir  measures  601  feet  in  diameter  by  2o|  feet  from 
floor  to  roof.  Being  a  rush  order,  a  small  army  was  required 
to  carry  out  the  necessary  excavation  and  the  erection  of 
the  reinforced  concrete  walls.  No  fewer  than  600  horses, 
300  teamsters,  and  300  additional  men  were  required  to 
remove  80,000  cubic  yards  of  earth  from  the  site.  The  spoil 
was  dumped  around  the  concrete  wall,  but  a  few  feet  distant 
from  the  latter,  in  the  form  of  an  outer  rampart.  This 
dyke  was  provided,  not  to  strengthen  the  tank  wall,  but  to 
act  as  a  fire-break  in  the  event  of  a  conflagration  eating  its 
way  towards  the  reservoirs.  The  tank  wall  itself  measures 
3  feet  in  thickness  at  the  base  by  6  inches  at  the  top.  Some 
12,000  cubic  yards  of  concrete  and  250  tons  of  round  steel 

7 


98  THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

were  used  for  the  walls,  while  the  floor  is  covered  with 
concrete  2.\  inches  thick  reinforced  with  wire  mesh.  Some 
2,500,000  feet  of  timber  were  utilized  for  the  roofs  of  the 
two  tanks. 

The  construction  of  these  two  tanks  involved  an  outlay 
of  £100,000,  or  $500,000.  The  main  8-inch  pipe-line,  where- 
with the  tanks  are  charged,  is  200^  miles  in  length,  and 
carries  the  oil  collected  upon  the  fields,  through  which  a 
tributary  system  of  pipe-lines  representing  a  further  200 
miles  extends,  so  that  400  miles  of  pipe-line  were  undertaken 
simultaneously  with  the  construction  of  the  reservoirs.  This 
enterprise,  which  conveys  some  idea  of  the  Herculean  efforts 
and  heavy  financial  outlay  involved  in  connection  with  the 
provision  of  oil-storage  facilities,  comprised  one  item  in  the 
scheme  projected  by  the  independent  producers  of  the  San 
Joaquin  Valley  to  increase  their  storage  facilities  by 
15,000,000  barrels.  A  large  pumping-station  was  also  laid 
down  to  pump  the  oil  from  these  reservoirs  direct  to  the 
tank  steamers  at  Port  Harford,  through  an  8-inch  pipe-line, 
capable  of  handling  25,000  barrels  of  oil  during  the  twenty- 
four  hours. 

In  many  fields  of  the  world  the  tank-farm  in  proximity 
to  the  wells  is  eliminated.  This  arrangement  is  possible 
when  the  company  are  producers  as  well  as  refiners.  This 
is  the  case  in  Mexico,  where  the  British  company  connect 
the  gushers  direct  to  the  pipe-lines  to  lead  the  oil  to  the 
point  of  shipment.  Tankage  facilities  are  provided  at  the 
latter  spot,  as  well  as  at  the  refineries.  The  gusher  itself  is 
shut  down  to  the  capacity  of  the  pipe-line,  or  other  desired 
output.  This  simplifies  the  problem  to  an  appreciable 
degree,  since,  in  the  event  of  the  district  becoming  exhausted 
of  oil,  losses  are  restricted  to  the  capital  expenditure  upon 
the  pipe-line,  which  eventually,  if  the  well  has  a  fairly  long 
life  and  a  good  yield,  is  completely  recouped.  At  the  same 
time  the  tankage  capacity  upon  the  British  operated  Mexican 
oil-fields  is  considerable,  being  sufficient  to  contain  2,000,000 
barrels  of  oil. 

The  refining  forces  constitute  the  backbone  of  the  pro- 


TAKING  CARE  OF  THE  "  CRUDE  "  99 

ducer.  Once  he  is  in  communication  with  them,  he  is 
relieved  of  further  anxieties;  his  market  is  certain;  he  is 
assured  of  a  fair  price  for  his  product.  In  fact,  he  works 
upon  a  basis  identical  with  that  prevailing  in  the  grain 
industry.  What  the  elevator  is  to  the  wheat-grower,  the 
refinery  is  to  the  oil-producer. 

When  the  producer  has  accumulated  a  tank  of  oil,  he 
notifies  the  purchaser.  The  latter  instantly  answers  the 
call  by  despatching  an  official  equipped  with  a  gauging-pole 
and  "  thief  "  to  sample  the  crude  and  to  measure  the  volume 
in  the  producer's  tank.  Accompanied  by  the  producer,  the 
gauger  swarms  the  tank,  and,  removing  the  trap  affording 
access  to  the  interior  of  the  latter,  he  lowers  the  "  thief" 
to  the  bottom  of  the  reservoir,  so  as  to  draw  a  sample  of 
oil  from  the  bottom.  The  "  thief  "  is  a  small  brass  instru- 
ment, and  the  sample  is  drawn  from  the  lowest  depth  of  the 
tank,  because,  if  the  crude  is  associated  with  sediment  and 
water,  it  will  collect  at  this  point.  The  gauger  examines 
the  contents  of  the  thief,  and,  satisfied  with  the  quality  of 
the  crude,  inserts  his  pole  to  gauge  the  level  of  the  oil 
within  the  tank.  The  figure  is  recorded  on  a  blank  form, 
which  is  handed  to  the  producer,  who,  being  present,  satisfies 
himself  that  the  work  has  been  carried  out  correctly.  The 
gauger  then  unlocks  the  valve  connecting  the  tank  with  the 
collecting  pipe-line,  and  the  run  of  crude  commences.  From 
this  moment  the  producer  has  no  further  interest  in  the 
contents  of  his  tank :  they  are  the  property  of  the  refining 
interests. 

The  oil  is  left  running,  the  gauger  calculating  roughly 
how  long  it  will  have  to  flow  before  the  tank  is  emptied. 
He  returns  in  about  an  hour,  once  more  lowers  his  gauge 
into  the  tank  to  observe  how  much  oil  is  remaining,  and 
gives  a  record  of  this  reading  to  the  producer.  The  con- 
nection with  the  pipe-line  is  shut  off,  and  the  valve  locked. 

A  round  of  wells  is  handled  in  this  manner  every  day, 
and  upon  his  return  to  the  office  the  gauger  communicates 
with  the  refiner,  giving  the  gauge  readings  before  and  after 
the  runs.  From  this  data  the  equivalent  in  barrels  of  crude 


100 


THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 


is  calculated,  and  a  credit  note  or  certificate  for  that  amount 
is  sent  to  the  producer. 

This  certificate  is  as  negotiable  as  a  five-pound  note  or  a 
dollar  bill.  The  producer,  if  he  has  secured  a  lease  of  the 
farm  for  drilling  purposes,  or  has  concluded  a  royalty  agree- 
ment with  the  land-owner,  either  arranges  with  the  refiners 
to  apportion  the  sum  due— in  the  value  of  barrels  of  oil— 
to  the  latter  in  the  form  of  a  credit  note,  or  the  division  is 
directly  effected  between  the  land-owner  and  producer.  The 
Standard  Oil  Company  favour  the  former  plan,  because  it 
avoids  friction  between  the  two  interests,  and  enables  either 
to  realize  the  certificate  at  any  time  independent  of  the 
other.  But  in  any  case  a  period  of  two  months  is  extended 
for  the  realization  of  the  certificate.  All  that  the  producer 
and  owner  have  to  do  is  to  follow  the  market  fluctuations 
and  prices.  Profiting  by  the  conditions  of  the  market,  the 
certificate  holders  intimate  to  the  refiners  the  desire  to  sell. 
The  market  price  prevailing  at  the  time  of  the  post-mark 
is  accepted  by  the  refiners,  and  the  certificate  is  redeemed 
thereat.  Of  course,  if  preferred,  the  certificate  may  be 
redeemed  immediately  it  is  received,  or  the  recipient  may 
take  advantage  of  the  market  price  any  time  within  the 
succeeding  sixty  days.  If  at  the  end  of  two  months  the 
certificate  has  not  been  realized,  the  refining  company  remits 
the  financial  equivalent  at  the  market  price  reigning  on  the 
first  day  of  the  third  month  after  the  oil  was  run. 

The  advantages  of  this  procedure  are  obvious.  The  pro- 
ducer is  given  a  thoroughly  straightforward  deal.  He  never 
can  complain  that  he  has  been  forced  to  sell  at  a  ruinous 
figure.  Even  his  gambling  instincts  are  stimulated,  because 
he  is  given  the  opportunity  to  speculate  in  the  product  for 
sixty  days.  He  is  absolved  from  all  losses  after  the  run  of 
his  crude  has  commenced.  The  risks  from  fire,  tempest, 
and  other  causes  are  borne  by  the  purchasers.  There  is 
only  one  deduction  made— the  freight-charges  for  trans- 
porting the  oil  from  the  well  to  the  refinery  or  other  centre 
through  the  pipe-line,  but  this  tariff  as  a  rule  is  nominal. 
In  this  way,  even  if  one  company  holds  a  monopoly  of  the 


TAKING  CARE  OF  THE  "  CRUDE  "  101 

transporting  of  pipe-line  facilities,  and  thus  controls  an  oil- 
field, no  "squeezing"  of  the  producer  is  possible.  The 
prevailing  price  of  oil  is  not  decided  by  any  one  company. 
It  is  set  by  the  markets  of  the  world  every  day,  and  the 
producer  is  able  to  satisfy  himself  by  consulting  the  quota- 
tions which  are  listed  on  the  exchanges  and  published  in 
the  Press  of  the  most  profitable  opportunity  within  the 
stipulated  time  limit  available  to  dispose  of  his  product,  or, 
rather,  its  equivalent,  the  certificate. 

The  price  of  oil  fluctuates  considerably.  Thus  in  1861 
Pennsylvania  oil  realized  a  maximum  of  52  cents,  or  2s.  2d., 
per  barrel.  The  oil  era  having  dawned,  and  being  appre- 
ciated, the  price  rose  rapidly,  high-water  mark  being  reached 
in  1864,  when  the  same  grade  of  crude  commanded  $7.85, 
or  325.  6d.,  per  barrel.  From  that  year  the  price  declined 
steadily  to  88  cents,  or  35.  8d.,  per  barrel  in  1879.  With 
the  exception  of  a  spasmodic  rise  to  $1.05,  or  45.  3|d.,  per 
barrel  in  1883,  Pennsylvania  oil  has  hovered  around  the 
lower  figure.  The  day  when  any  one  company  could  dic- 
tate the  price  which  an  independent  producer  should  receive 
for  his  crude  has  gone  for  ever.  In  the  early  days  attempts 
were  made  to  profit  from  cornering  the  output,  but  these 
endeavours  were  speedily  rendered  impossible.  Overtures 
to  rival  concerns,  the  building  of  competitive  pipe-lines,  or 
determined  threats  to  carry  out  such  projects,  invariably 
brought  the  interests  endeavouring  to  profit  unduly  from 
the  situation  to  their  senses.  After  all,  the  producer  holds 
the  dominating  position.  If  he  ceases  operations,  and 
diverts  his  supplies  into  other  channels,  the  unduly  grasping 
purchasing  element  courts  disaster.  It  can  only  maintain 
its  position  by  preserving  good  relations  with  the  man  who 
wins  the  oil  from  the  earth,  or  embarks  upon  production 
upon  its  own  initiative,  the  speculative  character  of  which 
work  is  thoroughly  appreciated. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

PIPING  THE  PETROLEUM 

ONE  of  the  most  extraordinary,  and  certainly  one  of  the 
most  impressive  features  of  the  oil-industry,  is  the  trans- 
portation of  the  crude  to  the  distillation  plant.  The  re- 
finery represents  one  of  the  most  expensive  phases  of  the 
industry.  A  modern  plant,  of  large  capacity,  may  easily 
involve  an  initial  outlay  of  £800,000  to  £1,000,000  ($4,000,000 
to  $5,000,000)  or  more. 

This  is  essentially  an  age  of  centralization,  and  it  was  the 
early  recognition  of  this  circumstance  and  its  manifold 
advantages  which  enabled  the  Standard  Oil  Company  to 
become  one  of  the  most  powerful  industrial  concerns  in  the 
world,  and  also  enabled  the  American  oil  industry  to  be  set 
upon  a  solid  foundation.  At  the  time  this  organization 
came  into  being  haphazard  methods  prevailed  for  carrying 
out  what  might  be  termed  the  higher  branches  of  the  craft. 
Small  refineries  were  set  up  here  and  there.  Generally 
speaking,  the  proving  of  a  new  field  was  considered  adequate 
reason  for  the  establishment  of  a  refinery  in  close  proximity 
to  the  wells. 

The  creators  of  the  American  oil  industry  as  it  is  known 
to-day  completely  revolutionized  the  practices  in  vogue. 
Instead  of  taking  the  refineries  to  the  oil-fields,  they  in- 
augurated the  policy  of  bringing  the  oil  to  the  refineries. 
The  latter  plants  were  set  up  at  the  best  strategical  points, 
preferably  near  the  waterside,  to  facilitate  and  cheapen  the 
cost  of  shipping  the  crude  and  refined  products.  As  a 
result,  dozens  of  small  refineries,  upon  acquisition,  were 
abandoned  and  dismantled  in  favour  of  huge  central  plants. 
In  several  instances  a  single  new  refinery  displaced  a  hundred 
or  more  small,  isolated,  and  antiquated  installations.  The 


PIPING  THE  PETROLEUM  103 

latter,  being  dependent  upon  the  fields  to  which  they  were 
attached,  were  operated  upon  expensive  lines.  At  times 
there  was  a  glut  of  oil,  and  the  establishment  was  hard 
pushed  to  keep  pace  with  the  situation.  At  others  it  suf- 
fered from  a  shortage,  and  was  compelled  to  run  upon  short 
time.  In  the  oil  industry,  such  practice  is  not  conducive  to 
low  costs  and  economy.  It  is  the  plant  which  is  kept 
running  aMts  full  capacity  the  whole  time  which  is  com- 
mercially successful,  because  the  manufacturing  charges  are 
thus  reduced  to  the  lowest  figure. 

But  there  was  one  powerful  and  obvious  reason  for  the 
erection  of  these  small  refining  plants.  Crude  oil  is  a  bulky, 
awkward,  and  weighty  article  to  transport,  and  the  move 
ment  of  the  petroleum  from  the  fields  became  one  of  the 
most  acute  problems  of  the  early  days.  To  a  great  extent 
dependence  had  to  be  placed  upon  animal  haulage.  The 
teamsters,  being  masters  of  the  situation,  levied  extortionate 
rates  for  conveying  the  raw  material.  The  general  pro- 
cedure was  to  barrel  the  oil,  and  to  send  it  overland  by 
horse  teams.  As  roads  were  practically  non-existent,  move- 
ment was  not  only  expensive,  but  slow.  So  far  as  possible, 
waterways  were  utilized.  The  barrels  of  oil  were  stacked 
on  flat  barges,  which  were  floated  or  towed  to  the  refineries, 
while,  if  railway  facilities  were  available — and  many  short 
lines  were  laid  down  especially  to  handle  oil — conical  wooden 
tanks — huge  weighty  vats — conveyed  the  oil  in  bulk  from 
the  fields  to  the  refineries. 

The  oil-well  owners  tolerated  the  exorbitant  charges  by 
road  and  water,  and  suffered  the  delays  and  inconveniences 
attending  such  methods  with  ill-grace.  But  extrication 
from  the  situation  was  entirely  dependent  upon  their  own 
exertions:  they  either  had  to  work  out  their  own  salvation 
or  suffer  in  silence.  One  day  an  enterprising  spirit,  Samuel 
Van  Syckle,  of  Titusville,  had  a  new  idea.  Water  could  be 
moved  over  long  distances,  up  hills  and  down  dales,  across 
rivers  and  swamps,  by  being  pumped  through  iron  pipes. 
Why  should  not  oil  be  handled  in  a  similar  manner  ?  To 
him  there  was  no  justifiable  argument  against  such  a  project. 


104         THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

He  discussed  the  scheme  with  kindred  minds,  but  while  they 
were  impressed  by  the  proposal  they  were  somewhat  scep- 
tical of  its  success.  The  cost  of  the  piping  and  laying  it 
would  come  to  a  heavy  figure,  so  it  was  a  question  whether 
the  cheaper  movement  by  pumping,  plus  the  interest  on  the 
capital  expended,  and  the  maintenance  charges,  would 
show  any  advantage  over  existing  methods.  The  advocate 
of  the  new  idea  worked  it  out  to  the  uttermost  cent,  pro- 
ducing figures  based  upon  the  market  price  of  the  piping 
delivered  to  site,  the  labour  charges  for  laying  the  line,  as 
well  as  the  cost  of  the  pumping-stations.  Then  he  drew  up 
an  estimate  of  the  cost  of  transporting  oil  by  this  means, 
together  with  the  quantity  which  could  be  moved  in  a 
certain  time.  His  figures  were  startling.  He  revealed  the 
fact  that  the  saving  in  the  cost  of  moving  the  oil  by  pipe- 
line as  if  it  were  water  would  be  sufficient  to  defray  the 
initial  outlay  within  so  many  months. 

Forthwith  a  small  private  line  five  miles  in  length  was 
laid  down  between  Pithole  City  and  Miller's  Farm,  and 
brought  into  service.  Those  who  had  doubted  the  ability 
to  move  crude  oil  in  this  manner  were  amazed.  The 
theories  and  prophecies  of  the  advocate  of  the  system  were 
substantiated  to  a  remarkable  degree.  Meanwhile,  those 
who  were  making  fortunes  from  the  conveyance  of  oil  by 
animal  transport  laughed  loud  and  long  at  the  idea  of 
pumping  petroleum  through  pipes.  Those  interested  in  the 
new  idea  kept  their  own  counsel,  studied  the  whole  problem 
diligently,  and  kept  elaborate  and  comprehensive  accounts 
of  the  working  costs.  The  initial  experiment  proving  so 
completely  successful,  other  pipe-line  schemes  were  pro- 
jected and  taken  in  hand. 

^  Suddenly  the  teamsters  and  others  received  a  rude  shock. 
Contracts  for  the  conveyance  of  the  oil  by  animal  traction 
were  terminated.  The  dismay  and  rage  of  the  teamsters 
may  be  conceived.  Their  livelihood  was  swept  away  in  one 
stroke.  Ruin  stared  them  in  the  face.  They  had  purchased 

id  possessed  extensive  stables  of  animals,  and  other  things 
necessary  to  maintain  effective  highroad  transportation. 


0  f. 

1  "= 


1 1! 


PIPING  THE  PETROLEUM  105 

These  were  now  thrown  upon  their  hands.  There  were  no 
chances  of  turning  these  costly  equipments  to  commercial 
profit  in  other  directions,  because  there  were  no  other  avail- 
able industries  demanding  services  of  this  character.  The 
fury  of  the  teamsters  was  indescribable.  Dire  threats  were 
uttered,  and  riots  of  a  serious  character  appeared  imminent. 
But  intimidation  proved  futile :  threats  did  not  perturb  the 
oil  interests  in  the  slightest.  The  latter  were  now  masters 
of  the  situation,  and  they  in  turn  laughed  at  and  ridiculed 
the  mortified  teamsters,  taunting  them  as  being  victims  of 
their  own  avarice. 

Owing  to  the  success  of  the  small  private  line,  more  am- 
bitious piping  projects  were  taken  in  hand.  The  first 
notable  work  of  this  character  was  a  line  eighty-seven  miles 
in  length  extending  from  John  Benninghoff  Farm  to  Shaffer 
Farm  on  the  Oil  Creek  Railroad.  The  first  pumping-station 
was  erected  at  the  Benninghoff  end,  while  the  other  terminal 
emptied  into  the  tanks  of  Abbott  and  Harley,  who  were 
responsible  for  the  enterprise.  Shaffer  was  a  strategical  oil- 
shipping  point,  sidings  laid  to  both  broad  and  standard 
gauge,  as  well  as  pipe  connections  for  loading  the  railway- 
cars  being  provided. 

The  teamsters  were  driven  to  exasperation.  They  ex- 
pended their  rage  in  an  emphatic  manner.  The  first  Van 
Syckle  pipe-line  was  ruthlessly  torn  up  from  end  to  end,  and 
the  piping  smashed  or  carried  away.  Other  lines  which 
were  in  progress  were  menaced.  The  men  engaged  in  the 
task  of  laying  the  pipes  were  ordered,  virtually  at  the  pistol- 
point,  to  throw  down  their  tools,  and  to  abandon  the  task 
of  robbing  a  hard-working  community.  The  truculent  atti- 
tude and  vengeful  operations  of  the  teamsters  convinced  the 
oil  interests  of  the  value  of  the  new  means  of  moving  the 
oil,  and  they  continued  their  operations  undismayed. 

Finally,  the  teamsters  adopted  a  different  plan  of  cam- 
paign. They  decided  to  bring  the  pipe-line  into  disrepute, 
and  spared  no  effort  to  consummate  this  end.  Breakdowns 
and  leaks  became  gallingly  frequent  in  certain  districts, 
which  the  teamsters  noised  far  and  wide  as  being  due  to  the 


106         THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

defects  of  the  system,  and  which  they  maintained  would 
always  prevail.  But  only  a  cursory  examination  was  neces- 
sary to  determine  that  the  mishaps  were  not  due  to  inherent 
defects  in  the  idea,  but  were  due  entirely  to  outside  influ- 
ences. 

Such  clumsy  and  nefarious  tactics  as  were  practised  by 
the  teamsters  could  not  stay  the  force  of  progress.  Even 
under  such  disadvantageous  conditions  the  pipe-line  proved 
its  economic  value  conclusively.  The  puny  destructive 
efforts  of  the  offended  interests  exercised  an  effect  diametri- 
cally opposite  to  what  had  been  anticipated.  In  a  way  the 
teamsters  hastened  their  own  destruction.  Breakdowns 
and  interruptions  due  to  maliciousness  only  served  to  ad- 
vertise the  innovation.  Oil-producers  and  refiners  hastened 
from  far  and  near  to  investigate  the  new  method  of  trans- 
porting oil,  became  convinced  of  its  possibilities,  and  hurried 
homewards  to  instal  similar  facilities  without  delay  in  their 
respective  districts. 

Freed  from  the  shackles  of  the  teamsters,  lines  were  laid 
in  all  directions  with  amazing  rapidity.  The  success  of  the 
innovation  in  the  United  States  prompted  other  countries 
to  embrace  the  scheme,  with  the  result  that  the  movement 
of  oil  through  pipe-lines  is  universally  practised  to-day.  As 
an  efficient  and  economic  solution  of  a  difficult  and  per- 
plexing problem  it  is  remarkable.  It  changed  completely 
one  important  phase  of  the  oil  industry.  By  its  means  the 
world's  output  has  been  increased,  because  those  districts 
which  have  so  low  a  yield  as  to  render  conveyance  of  crude 
by  ordinary  methods  unprofitable,  are  able  to  contribute  to 
the  world's  supply  at  a  remunerative  figure.  There  is  no 
other  system  of  transportation  upon  land,  no  matter  how 
cheap  the  labour  factor  may  be,  which  can  compete  with 
piping.  It  is  not  surprising  that  the  oil  interests  of  America , 
after  releasing  themselves  from  the  avaricious  clutches  of 
the  teamsters,  should  have  elaborated  the  idea,  and  intro- 
duced it  as  a  competitor  to  the  railways.  In  this  instance, 
however,  no  attempt  was  made  to  supersede  the  steel  lines 
of  communication,  but  rather  to  supplement  them,  because, 


PIPING  THE  PETROLEUM  107 

no  matter  how  complete  the  arrangements  for  conveying  oil 
in  this  manner  may  be,  the  railways  never  would  be  able  to 
cope  with  the  output,  either  between  the  fields  and  the 
refinery,  or  between  the  refineries  and  the  markets  of  con- 
sumption or  points  of  shipment. 

Organizations,  whose  efforts  are  confined  to  the  provision 
of  pipe-line  facilities  in  a  manner  reminiscent  of  the  public 
supply  of  gas  and  water,  were  brought  into  existence,  and 
their  activities  are  boundless.  Extensions  are  carried  out 
with  an  enterprise  which  is  probably  unequalled  in  any 
other  realm  of  human  endeavour.  The  world  cries  so  loudly 
for  oil  that  even  a  few  barrels  per  day  cannot  be  ignored. 
Some  of  these  organizations,  which  are  independent  of  the 
oil-producing  interests,  control  hundreds  of  miles  of  line. 
The  largest  individual  owners  are  those  enrolled  under  the 
banner  of  the  Standard  Oil  Company.  There  are  no  less 
than  10,000  miles  of  trunk  pipe-lines,  which  may  be  likened 
to  the  main  tracks  of  a  railway,  and  destined  for  through 
fast  traffic;  while  there  are  over  80,000  miles  of  feeders  or 
branches,  extending  in  all  directions,  picking  oil  up  here, 
there,  and  everywhere,  and  hurrying  it  to  the  refineries,  and 
from  the  refineries  to  shipping  points. 

This  huge  network  has  been  woven  into  a  homogeneous 
whole  by  the  pursuance  of  the  policy  of  purchase,  lease,  and 
construction.  It  is  the  outcome  of  less  than  half  a  century's 
operations,  which  tends  to  offer  one  illustration  of  the  stern, 
commercial,  and  energetic  measures  pursued  by  the  Standard 
Oil  Company,  in  accordance  with  its  guiding  maxim  of 
"  Reduce  working  expenses,  eliminate  waste." 

The  laying  of  a  pipe-line  differs  from  any  other  branch  of 
transport  engineering.  When  a  highroad  is  moulded,  or 
when  a  new  railway  is  plotted,  the  engineers  scour  the 
country  and  resort  to  amazing  ingenuity  to  keep  down  the 
grades,  to  facilitate  the  movement  of  traffic.  The  pipe-line 
engineer  experiences  no  such  worries.  He  follows  the  con- 
tour of  the  land.  Acclivities  and  declivities,  no  matter  how 
severe,  do  not  materially  affect  the  movement  of  the  oil, 
which  has  the  effort  of  powerful  pumps  to  speed  it  onward. 


io8         THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

All  that  is  required  is  a  reasonable  stable  foundation 
upon  which  to  lay  the  pipes,  and  one  where  it  is  protected 
from  Nature's  destructive  handiwork,  such  as  washouts, 
avalanches,  landslides,  and  so  forth.  The  Burmese  pipe-line, 
which  brings  the  oil  down  from  the  distant  hinterland  to  the 
seaboard,  traverses  country  exposed  to  torrential  rains,  and 
in  this  instance  the  maintenance  of  the  line  is  attended  with 
considerable  anxiety  and  difficulty,  owing  to  the  severity  of 
the  washouts  and  slides  which  are  caused  by  the  heavy 
rainfall.  The  diameter  of  the  pipe  varies  according  to  the 
character  of  the  oil  and  the  volume  to  be  handled,  but  the 
4-inch,  6-inch,  and  8-inch  are  those  in  general  service. 

The  disposition  of  the  pumping-stations  also  varies  con- 
siderably, this  factor  being  governed  by  the  nature  of  the 
oil,  the  speed  with  which  the  producers  desire  it  to  be 
moved,  and  local  conditions.  Thus,  on  one  Asiatic  pipe- 
line, about  576  miles  in  length,  only  two  stations  are  re- 
quired. The  oil  is  light,  runs  fairly  easily  and  rapidly,  there 
is  no  necessity  for  a  very  high  travelling  speed,  while  the 
country  traversed,  being  sparsely  populated,  it  is  necessary 
to  reduce  the  number  of  intermediate  stations  to  the  mini- 
mum. On  the  other  hand,  the  oil  which  is  obtained  in 
Mexico  is  heavy,  and  so  runs  very  slowly.  On  the  fields 
controlled  by  Lord  Cowdray's  interests,  owing  to  the  enor- 
mous output  of  the  wells,  and  the  fact  that  the  lines  are 
taxed  to  their  utmost  capacity,  the  oil  has  to  be  moved 
quickly;  consequently,  in  this  instance  the  pumping-stations 
are  spaced  at  intervals  of  about  twelve  miles. 

Some  thirty  years  ago,  when  oil  was  not  appreciated  so 
keenly  as  it  is  to-day,  the  wastage  assumed  enormous  pro- 
portions, as  related  elsewhere.  Wells  were  drilled  by  the 
speculators  with  the  frenzy  that  a  man  pans  the  earth  for 
the  yellow  fleece  in  a  new  gold-field.  Never  a  thought  was 
given  to  the  problem,  How  is  the  oil  to  be  despatched  to  the 
market  ?  The  consequence  was  that,  when  a  strike  was 
made,  the  greater  proportion  of  the  yield  ran  loose,  merely 

ecause  there  were  no  facilities  available  for  its  transporta- 
tion. But  now  haphazard  have  given  way  to  scientific 


PIPING  THE  PETROLEUM  109 

methods.  Of  course,  now  and  again  a  tremendous  gusher 
will  burst  into  activity,  and  its  flow  will  exceed  the  most 
sanguine  expectations  to  such  a  degree  that  much  of  the  oil 
must  be  lost;  but,  taken  on  the  whole,  the  losses  in  this 
direction  have  been  reduced  by  quite  80  per  cent.,  as  com- 
pared with  thirty  years  ago.  This  result  is  entirely  due  to 
the  pipe-line. 

A  case  in  point  may  be  cited.  When  the  famous  McDonald 
field  was  struck  suddenly  and  unexpectedly  in  1891,  there 
was  a  complete  absence  of  facilities  for  handling  the  product 
of  3,000  barrels  a  day.  The  Standard  Oil  Company  received 
the  earliest  intimation  of  the  strike,  and,  realizing  the  situa- 
tion, immediately  put  its  comprehensive  and  wonderful 
machinery  into  motion.  Its  pipe-line  and  tank  erection 
nterests  went  to  work  with  a  will,  being  urged  to  spare  no 
effort.  The  men  toiled  the  round  twenty-four  hours  at  tip- 
top pressure.  What  was  the  result  ?  The  steel  plates  for 
the  tanks,  together  with  crowds  of  labourers,  were  on  their 
way  to  the  new  field  while  the  telegraph  was  at  work.  In 
less  than  five  months  these  forces  completed  storage  facilities 
capable  of  receiving  3,000,000  barrels.  Simultaneously, 
other  gangs  concentrated  their  energies  upon  the  laying  of 
the  pipe-lines. 

A  territory  some  twelve  square  miles  in  area  was  being 
overrun  by  the  prospectors  and  drillers,  and  new  wells  were 
coming  into  operation  almost  daily.  A  somewhat  intricate 
network  of  pipes  had  to  be  laid.  It  was  imperative  that  the 
main  lines  should  be  got  through  at  all  hazards  to  ease  the 
situation,  which  was  becoming  critical.  As  rapidly  as  the 
storage-tanks  were  completed,  they  were  charged  to  their 
utmost;  in  fact,  the  tank  erectors  could  not  keep  pace  with 
developments.  It  was  a  wild  rush  with  the  pipe-line,  but 
in  less  than  eight  weeks  sufficient  pipage  had  been  provided 
to  take  care  of  26,000  barrels  a  day.  Although  this  was  less 
than  the  daily  yield  of  the  oil- field,  it  brought  production 
under  control.  The  various  gangs  continued  their  feverish 
haste,  and  within  a  further  eight  weeks  all  apprehensions 
disappeared.  Over  fifty  miles  of  pipe-lines  had  been  laid, 


no         THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

and  were  able  to  carry  away  more  than  80,000  barrels  of 
petroleum  during  the  twenty-four  hours,  which  was  in 
excess  of  the  daily  output  of  the  field.  Contrast  this  state 
of  affairs  with  what  prevailed  in  Texas  upon  the  occasion 
of  the  coming  of  the  Lucas  gusher  and  the  Beaumont  oil- 
field !  Here  probably  more  oil  was  lost  than  ever  was  col- 
lected. More  than  a  year  elapsed  before  pipe-lines  were 
connected  to  the  wells. 

It  is  no  uncommon  thing  for  the  Standard  Oil  Company 
to  authorize  the  extension  of  a  pipe-line  of  twenty  or  more 
miles  to  a  new  well,  in  order  to  take  away  the  owner's  pro- 
duce, and  the  latter  does  not  contribute  a  penny  towards 
the  expense  of  the  extension.  That  is  borne  entirely  by  the 
pipe-line  concern.  The  producer  merely  pays  the  agreed 
tariff  for  the  conveyance  of  his  oil,  and  is  generally  thankful 
for  the  ability  to  dispose  of  it  instead  of  watching  it  run  to 
waste,  or  be  compelled  to  dispose  of  it  at  a  ruinous  price. 

While  in  the  United  States  pipe-lines  are  laid,  owned,  and 
controlled  by  private  enterprise,  in  certain  other  countries 
they  are  the  property  of  the  State.  This  is  the  case  among 
the  Russian  oil-fields  of  the  Caucasus.  The  urgency  of  a 
pipe-line  was  obvious,  but  private  initiative  manifested  no 
desire  to  undertake  the  task,  and,  in  fact,  it  received  no 
encouragement  from  the  Government.  When  one  recalls 
the  extremely  mountainous  character  of  the  country,  and 
the  difficulties  innumerable  which  the  engineers  experienced 
in  building  the  Trans-Caucasian  Railway,  which  still  ranks 
as  one  of  the  wonders  of  the  world,  private  hesitation  may 
be  understood. 

At  last  the  prosperity  of  the  Caucasian  oil-fields,  being 
dependent  upon  improved  means  for  the  movement  of  the 
oil  between  Baku,  the  centre  of  the  district,  and  the  shipping 
port  of  Batoum  on  the  Black  Sea,  the  Government  was 
spurred  to  action.  It  decided  to  build  and  to  operate  a 
pipe-line  as  a  national  work.  It  was  a  gigantic  undertaking 
in  itself,  owing  to  the  severity  of  the  climbs  and  the  rugged- 
ess  of  the  route  which  had  to  be  followed.  Surveying 
revealed  the  fact  that  the  easiest  and  most  satisfactory 


PIPING  THE  PETROLEUM  in 

alignment  was  alongside  the  State-owned  Trans-Caucasian 
Railway.  The  first  section,  145  miles  in  length,  was  taken 
in  hand  about  sixteen  years  ago.  A  conduit  of  8  inches 
internal  diameter  was  selected.  The  receiving-point  was 
established  at  the  station  of  Mikhailovs  on  the  State  railway 
near  the  frontier  of  Kutain  and  Tiflis,  and  it  was  extended 
thence  to  Batoum.  Owing  to  the  heavy  grades,  three  pump- 
ing-stations  had  to  be  provided.  At  the  receiving-stations 
two  huge  underground  reservoirs  were  built,  into  which  the 
oil,  collected  in  tank-waggons  among  the  fields  of  Baku  400 
miles  away,  and  hauled  by  rail  to  this  point,  was  despatched 
upon  its  long  journey.  Subsequently  the  pipe-line  was  ex- 
tended to  Baku,  whereby  its  length  was  increased  to  about 
550  miles.  The  line  was  designed  to  handle  some  400,000,000 
gallons  per  annum.  This  line  ranks  as  one  of  the  most 
remarkable  in  the  world,  inasmuch  as  it  traverses  the  most 
difficult  and  broken  country  through  which  such  a  method 
of  oil  transportation  ever  has  been  attempted. 

Curiously  enough,  in  many  of  the  large  oil-producing 
countries  the  question  of  private  against  State-owned  pipe- 
lines has  developed  into  quite  as  acute  a  subject  of  discus- 
sion as  the  nationalization  of  railways.  Government  owner- 
ship certainly  solves  one  question.  It  prevents  discrimina- 
tion and  the  setting  up  of  a  dominating  monopoly,  because 
if  the  vehicle  of  conveyance  is  open  to  one  and  all  at  an 
equitable  rate,  it  is  impossible  for  unfair  advantages  to  be 
taken.  Some  years  ago  this  factor  was  revealed  in  a  striking 
manner.  A  foreign  organization  coveted  the  rich  oil-fields 
of  Roumania,  and  realized  that  if  a  pipe-line  were  laid  from 
the  fields  to  the  strategical  shipping  port,  a  pronounced 
advantage  over  competitors  could  be  obtained.  It  prepared 
its  plans  with  great  care,  and  having  the  capital  at  its  dis- 
posal to  construct  the  projected  line,  foresaw  a  complete 
control  of  the  oil  situation  in  the  country,  since  competitors, 
deprived  of  a  cheap  method  of  conveying  their  product  to 
the  sea,  would  be  at  such  a  serious  disadvantage  that  they 
would  be  forced  to  come  to  terms  with  the  company  owning 
the  pipe-line.  Unfortunately  for  the  prospective  monopo- 


H2    THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

lists,  the  scheme  was  scotched.  The  Government  appreciated 
private  enterprise  in  completing  such  a  line  of  communica- 
tion, and  would  do  everything  in  its  power  to  further  its 
realization,  but,  upon  completion,  the  line  was  to  be  handed 
over  to  the  State,  and  was  to  be  operated  thereby  for  the 
benefit  of  one  and  all  who  had  invested  money  in  the  oil- 
fields of  the  country  !  Needless  to  say,  such  an  unexpected 
contretemps  met  with  no  favour  among  those  casting  envious 
eyes  upon  Naboth's  oil-fields. 

Heavy  asphaltic  oil  taxes  the  pumping  plant  to  a  remark- 
able degree.  The  Kern  River  district  of  California  yields  a 
very  dense  petroleum,  but,  despite  this  fact,  the  producers 
resolved  to  attempt  to  pump  it  to  a  point  of  shipment  upon 
San  Francisco  Bay.  To  this  end  a  pipe-line  280  miles  in 
length  was  laid.  But  its  inauguration  revealed  an  unex- 
pected difficulty.  The  oil  was  so  viscous  and  sticky  that  it 
moved  at  an  imperceptible  speed;  in  fact,  five  days  were 
required  to  send  it  over  the  first  thirty -seven  miles.  At 
such  a  pace,  and  with  the  prospect  of  the  oil  being  five  weeks 
in  the  pipe  before  it  reached  its  destination,  the  interests 
decided  to  abandon  the  project. 

A  grave  situation  developed.  Unless  the  oil  could  be 
driven  through  the  piping,  the  capital  sunk  in  the  enter- 
prise would  have  to  be  written  off  as  a  dead  loss,  while 
other  and  more  expensive  methods  of  transportation  would 
have  to  be  adopted  which  would  react  against  the  profitable 
exploitation  of  the  fields.  With  a  view  to  solving  the 
problem,  the  expedient  of  heating  the  oil  to  about  120°  F., 
thereby  rendering  it  more  fluid,  was  adopted,  while  at  the 
same  time  the  number  of  pumping-stations  was  increased. 
The  latter  move  was  the  only  logical  method  of  overcoming 
the  difficulty,  as  experience  in  Mexico  has  proved.  Although 
the  Mexican  oil  is  far  denser  than  the  Californian  product, 
no  troubles  are  experienced  in  its  movement  through  the 
pipes,  owing  to  the  number  of  pumping-stations  installed. 

The  difficulty  in  piping  the  Californian  oil  was  responsible 
for  the  perfection  of  an  ingenious  idea,  which  was  tested 
upon  a  large  scale.  As  is  well  known,  oil  and  water  refuse 


1'UMPIXG-STATIOX   OX   THE   UXITED   STATES    P1PE-L1XE. 

This  line,  comprising  two  4-inch  mains,  is  366  miles  in  length.  It  extends  from  Titusvi 
Marcus  Hook,  and  is  used  for  refined  oil  only.  From  4,000  to  6,000  barrels  are  moved 
twenty-four  hours. 


OPEXIXG   THE   PERSIAN   OIL-FIELD. 
British  tractor  hauling  load  of  pipes  for  the  construction  of  a  pipe-line  across  the  Persian  desert. 


To  face  page  113. 


PIPING  THE  PETROLEUM  113 

to  mix,  and  this  antagonism  becomes  more  pronounced  as 
the  density  of  the  oil  increases.  Accordingly,  two  American 
engineers  conceived  a  pipe-line  having  a  spirally  grooved 
inner  wall,  similar  to  that  of  a  gun-barrel,  through  which 
water  and  oil,  in  certain  proportions,  were  to  be  pumped 
simultaneously.  The  inventors  of  the  rifled  pipe-line,  as 
it  was  described,  maintained  that  the  antagonism  between 
water  and  the  heavy  Californian  oil  would  cause  the  former 
to  take  to  the  walls  of  the  tube  under  the  centrifugal  action 
generated  by  swirling  the  contents  round  and  round  as  they 
followed  the  path  of  the  grooves.  The  result  would  be  the 
production  of  a  thin  film  of  water  moving  along  the  surface 
of  the  pipe  and  with  the  oil,  in  the  form  of  a  compact  core, 
travelling  along  the  centre,  the  water,  in  fact,  acting  as  a 
lubricant.  Not  only  would  the  two  articles  move  together 
in  this  way,  but  friction  would  be  overcome,  which,  except 
for  the  water,  otherwise  would  be  so  great  as  to  arrest  the 
movement  of  the  oil.  The  promoters  of  the  scheme  also 
maintained  that  the  pipe  would  have  a  longer  length  of  life, 
owing  to  the  reduction  of  friction. 

The  project  appeared  so  feasible  that  it  was  adopted 
upon  a  comprehensive  scale.  A  main  pipe-line,  282  miles 
in  length,  was  laid  between  Bakerfield  and  Porta  Costa. 
Twelve  months  were  occupied  upon  the  task,  which  entailed 
an  outlay  of  £900,000  ($4,500,000).  It  was  designed  to 
pump  17,000  to  20,000  barrels  of  thick  heavy  oil  past  a  given 
point  in  twenty-four  hours.  Relay  pump  ing-stations  were 
disposed  at  intervals  of  twenty-three  miles,  and  sixty  men 
were  detailed  for  duty  along  its  entire  length.  At  each 
pumping-station  two  oil- tanks  of  55,000  barrels,  and  one 
water- tank  of  10,000  barrels  capacity,  were  erected.  Each 
pumping  installation  had  a  set  for  driving  the  oil  through 
the  pipes,  and  one  for  pumping  the  water.  The  two  sub- 
stances were  injected  into  the  pipe-line  simultaneously,  the 
proportions  being  one  part  of  water  to  nine  parts  of  oil. 

Unfortunately,  the  rifled  pipe-line  does  not  appear  to 
have  been  the  great  success  anticipated ;  at  any  rate,  it  has 
not  been  extensively  adopted  either  in  California  or  in  any 

8 


H4         THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

other  countries  where  similar  conditions  prevail.  The 
rifled  pipe-line  is  regarded  as  an  interesting  engineering 
curiosity  rather  than  a  practical  commercial  proposition, 
and  is  condemned  generally,  owing  to  the  cost  of  despatching 
the  oil  through  the  pipe  being  practically  doubled.  A 
greater  number  of  pumping-stations,  disposed  at  shorter 
intervals,  was  thought  to  be  a  far  cheaper  solution  of  the 
problem. 

In  Mexico,  under  the  enterprise  of  the  British  interests 
controlled  by  Lord  Cowdray,  the  pipe-line  system  has  been 
brought  to  a  high  stage  of  perfection,  possibly  excelling  that 
obtaining  in  the  United  States.  The  conditions  in  the 
Central  American  Republic  are  somewhat  different,  and 
attended  with  greater  difficulties.  The  British  organization 
has  over  200  miles  of  pipe-lines  in  service,  the  majority 
being  8  inches  in  diameter.  The  whole  network  has  to 
handle  the  heaviest  classes  of  petroleum  known;  but  in 
this  instance,  owing  to  the  engineering  knowledge  available 
and  displayed,  the  movement  of  the  treacle-like  asphaltic 
petroleum  is  attended  with  no  more  difficulty  than  the  light 
paraffin  oils  found  in  the  Appalachian  fields. 

At  Tuxpan  there  is  a  pipe-line  installation  which  is 
probably  the  most  interesting  in  the  world.  This  is  the 
shipping  point,  but,  owing  to  the  shallow  depth  of  water, 
the  vessels  are  unable  to  come  close  in-shore.  Instead  of 
expending  huge  sums  of  money  in  the  construction  of  a 
harbour  and  jetties,  a  novel  alternative  was  adopted.  On 
shore  a  large  pumping-station  and  a  farm  of  immense  tanks 
were  installed.  From  this  pumping-station  pipe-lines  were 
laid  upon  the  sea-bed  to  a  point  one  and  a  half  miles  off- 
shore. At  the  ocean  moorings,  where  there  is  sufficient 
depth  of  water  to  permit  the  largest  tank  steamers  to  ride 
at  anchor,  the  pipe-lines  are  connected  to  lengths  of  flexible 
hose,  which  extend  into  the  holds  of  the  tankers.  The 
arrangements  enable  three  or  four  vessels  to  be  loaded  with 
il  at  one  and  the  same  time.  The  practice  of  anchoring 
vessels  in  an  open  roadstead  one  and  a  half  miles  out,  and 
thus  loading  them,  may  be  open  to  criticism,  but  the  prac- 


PIPING  THE  PETROLEUM  115 

ticability  and  success  of  the  scheme  are  revealed  by  actual 
experience.  During  the  year  1913  over  200  tank  steamers 
were  loaded  at  Tuxpan  in  this  manner,  and  on  the  average 
a  vessel  was  loaded  and  cleared  within  two  and  half  days. 
By  means  of  these  interesting  and  unusual  pumping  and 
sea-line  facilities,  a  ship  can  be  loaded  at  the  rate  of  10,000 
tons — 75,000  barrels — in  the  course  of  twenty-four  hours. 

The  pipe-line  is  used  not  only  for  the  conveyance  of  the 
crude  oil  from  the  wells  to  the  refineries,  but  also  of  the 
lighter  products  resulting  from  distillation  to  the  seaboard 
for  shipment  in  bulk,  although  it  is  in  the  carriage  of  crude 
oil,  which  has  to  be  transported  at  such  a  low  rate  to  show 
a  profit,  that  its  advantages  are  felt  to  the  greatest  degree. 
Crude  varies  in  price.  The  factor  is  not  based  upon  the 
law  of  supply  and  demand  so  much  as  the  ability  or  inability 
to  get  it  conveyed  from  the  well  to  the  refinery.  A  well 
may  be  producing  20,000  barrels  a  day,  but  if  the  owner 
cannot  dispose  of  his  product,  he  is  in  an  unenviable  position. 
Water  is  more  valuable,  for  the  simple  reason  that  the  crude 
oil  may  not  only  be  useless,  but  it  may  become  a  nuisance. 
The  existence  of  an  organization  such  as  the  National 
Transit  Company ,  with  a  capital  of  £6,000,000,  or  $30,000,000, 
available  for  pipe-line  construction  purely  and  simply, 
solves  the  transportation  of  oil  as  completely  as  other 
similar  enterprises  handle  the  shipment  of  grain  or  cattle 
for  the  stockyards.  A  pipe-line  is  an  uncertain  investment 
in  itself.  An  oil-field  is  subject  to  a  brief  existence  or 
severe  depreciation,  so  that  the  project  is  speculative.  Yet, 
taken  on  the  whole,  the  pipe-line  is  a  highly  profitable 
investment,  if  worked  upon  a  sufficiently  comprehensive 
scale;  in  fact,  under  normal  conditions  it  pays  for  itself 
in  such  a  short  space  of  tune,  that,  when  an  oil-field  becomes 
exhausted,  it  is  more  profitable  to  abandon  the  pipes  than 
to  tear  them  up  for  use  elsewhere. 

The  Union  Oil  Company  of  California,  in  the  course  of 
its  development,  became  intimately  associated  with  the 
Texas  oil-fields.  But  the  properties  were  far  distant  from 
one  another,  and  had  no  means  of  intercommunication. 


ii6         THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

There  was  only  a  long  length  of  railway  connecting  the  two 
territories,  and  this  fact  hampered  economical  operation. 
Moreover,  the  two  fields  were  yielding  immense  quantities 
of  the  commodity  which  defied  disposal,  with  the  result 
that  tankage  capacity  threatened  to  become  overtaxed,  in 
which  event  the  glut  of  oil  would  lower  prices .  Accordingly , 
it  was  decided  to  link  up  the  two  fields,  and  incidentally 
to  exploit  new  possible  markets.  The  settlement  of  the 
isthmian  territory  contiguous  to  the  Panama  Canal 
prompted  an  investigation  of  the  existing  and  prospective 
commercial  conditions  along  its  route,  and,  as  these  were 
deemed  to  be  favourable,  a  bold  move  was  decided — the 
laying  of  a  pipe-line  across  the  isthmus  connecting  the 
Pacific  and  Atlantic  Oceans. 

The  requisite  concession  from  the  Republic  of  Panama 
was  secured,  and  the  United  States  Government,  when 
approached,  supported  the  movement  on  the  understanding 
that  the  concession  should  terminate  with  the  opening  of 
the  canal,  and  that  the  oil  company  should  be  a  mere 
licensee,  and  not  be  entitled  to  any  proprietary  or  other 
rights  in  the  land  upon  which  the  line  was  laid.  These 
terms  were  accepted,  and  within  a  short  time  large  gangs 
of  men  were  set  to  work  running  the  line  from  both  sea- 
boards simultaneously,  while  additional  gangs  drove  it 
eastwards  and  westwards  from  a  strategical  central  point. 
By  this  method  of  building  from  three  points  at  once, 
construction  was  accelerated. 

The  pipe  has  an  internal  diameter  of  8  inches,  and  weighs 
600  pounds  per  length.  It  follows  the  alignment  of  the 
railway  practically  throughout  its  length  of  fifty-one  miles 
between  La  Boca,  two  and  a  half  miles  from  Panama  on 
the  Pacific,  and  Colon  on  the  Atlantic  seaboards,  respectively , 
cutting  across  loops  and  curves  to  reduce  mileage.  A 
surface  line  was  laid,  although  in  many  places  it  has  dis- 
appeared from  sight,  having  sunk  deeply  into  the  tropical 
swamp.  It  attains  a  maximum  altitude  of  only  210  feet 
above  its  terminal  points.  Construction  was  carried  out 
rapidly,  the  conditions  not  presenting  any  serious  engineer- 


mm 


POXDS   OF   OIL. 

Roumania  the  oil  often  pours  out  heavily,  necessitating  the  construction  of  dams  upon  the  hillside 
to  protect  the  villages  below  from  inundation. 


•FT 


SAND    FROM   OIL. 

Mounds  of  sand  shovelled  from  the  settling  tanks  into  which  three  oil-wells  are  baled.     One  : 
is  retained  to  shovel  continuously. 


To  face  page  116. 


PIPING  THE  PETROLEUM  117 

ing  difficulties,  except,  perhaps,  in  the  crossing  and  re- 
crossing  of  the  creeks  and  other  waterways.  The  pipe, 
however,  is  laid  upon  the  beds  of  these  obstacles,  in  such 
crossings  having  been  made.  Three  pumping-stations  are 
provided — one  at  either  end,  and  one  at  an  intermediate 
point.  The  pumping  plant  is  able  to  handle  25,000  barrels 
a  day,  and  the  pressure  within  the  pipe-line  varies  from 
600  to  800  pounds  per  square  inch. 

A  fleet  of  tank  steamers  operates  upon  either  side  of  the 
continent  in  conjunction  with  the  pipe-line.  The  tankers 
come  down  to  La  Boca  laden  with  oil.  They  moor  off 
the  shore,  and  are  connected  to  the  tanks  by  means  of 
flexible  hoses  or  pipes  supported  upon  floats.  The  oil  is 
discharged  direct  into  the  tanks,  drawn  off  by  the  pumps, 
and  despatched  across  the  isthmus  to  Colon,  where  it  is 
emptied  into  other  tanks,  and  thence  loaded  directly  into 
the  Atlantic  tankers. 

The  conquest  of  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  by  railway,  canal, 
and  oil  pipe-line  is  most  remarkable.  To  the  territory 
contiguous  to  the  canal,  and  to  the  United  States,  the  pro- 
vision of  such  facilities  is  of  far-reaching  import.  Ample 
supplies  of  fuel  are  immediately  available.  At  the  same 
time  the  pipe-line  is  of  incalculable  value  to  the  owners. 
It  eliminates  the  necessity  for  laden  vessels  to  pass  through 
the  canal  from  ocean  to  ocean,  because  trans-shipment  and 
pumping  constitute  a  more  rapid  and  cheaper  means  of 
conveying  the  oil  from  one  side  of  the  continent  to  the 
other. 

Owing  to  the  rapid  extension  of  the  pipe-line  systems 
in  the  United  States,  the  possibility  of  driving  the  oil  across 
the  breadth  of  the  continent  has  been  mooted.  Should 
economic  considerations  indicate  the  advisability  of  such  a 
system,  it  will  be  consummated.  The  outlay  would  not  be 
exceptionally  costly,  inasmuch  as  the  gaps  between  existing 
fields  and  their  pipe-line  connections  are  being  reduced 
rapidly,  owing  to  the  discovery  of  new  oil-bearing  districts. 
Probably,  before  another  forty  years  have  passed,  the 
transcontinental  pipe-line,  reaching  from  New  York  to 


ii8         THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

San  Francisco,  will  become  a  reality.  It  will  enable  the 
oil-fields  in  the  Middle  States  to  despatch  their  product 
either  to  the  Atlantic  or  Pacific  seaboards  as  desired.  At 
the  same  time  it  will  serve  territories  en  route,  which,  being 
deficient  in  local  coal  resources,  will  be  able  to  obtain  fuel 
at  a  lower  price  than  is  possible  at  present. 


CHAPTER  IX 
THE  OIL  REFINERY  AND  ITS  EQUIPMENT 

As  a  rule  the  oil,  as  it  issues  from  the  earth,  is  mixed  with 
many  foreign  bodies,  sand  and  water  predominating.  In 
some  instances  this  percentage  of  deleterious  matter,  more 
particularly  when  the  petroleum  is  drawn  from  loose  sand, 
will  be  as  much  as  50  per  cent,  of  the  bulk  raised.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  may  be  present  in  very  small  quantities. 
This  is  particularly  the  case  in  Mexico,  where  the  enormous 
gushers  yield  a  strikingly  pure  crude  oil.  Contamination 
is  wellnigh  inevitable,  because  petroleum  is  always  found 
combined  with  sand  and  water,  and,  as  previously  mentioned, 
when  the  oil  has  been  exhausted,  its  place  is  taken  by  salt 
water.  When  a  new  well  is  sunk,  and  a  rich  strike  is  made, 
the  proportion  of  impurities  may  be  very  low,  but  it 
increases  as  the  sands  below  become  depleted  of  their 
petroleum  content,  until  invariably  in  the  later  stages  the 
well  becomes  unprofitable,  more  water  and  sand  than  oil 
being  brought  to  the  surface. 

When  heavily  impregnated  with  these  useless  substances, 
the  oil,  after  issuing  from  the  well,  is  allowed  to  stand  for 
a  time,  to  permit  the  sandy  content  to  settle,  and  the  water 
to  isolate  itself  from  the  oil.  In  the  Kern  River  country 
the  sand  and  water  trouble  is  particularly  acute,  and,  indeed, 
prevails  to  a  greater  or  lesser  degree  throughout  the  Cali- 
fornia oil  region.  In  other  countries  a  similar  state  of  affairs 
prevails,  particularly  in  Java,  where,  owing  to  the  activity 
of  the  oil  geysers  or  mud  volcanoes,  the  three  articles  are 
somewhat  intimately  associated,  owing  to  the  constant 
state  of  agitation  which  is  maintained  by  the  forces  of 
Nature. 

119 


120         THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

The  oil  is  pumped,  or  flows,  from  the  wells  into  small 
ponds  immediately  adjacent  to  the  borehole.  These  pits, 
known  as  "  sumps,"  are  designed  in  the  first  place  to  hold 
from  500  to  2,000  barrels  or  more  of  oil,  but  this  capacity  is 
reduced  within  a  short  tune  owing  to  the  suspended  detritus 
settling  in  a  thick  layer  of  sediment.  Consequently  the 
sump  has  to  undergo  periodical  cleaning. 

From  this  pond  the  crude  oil  flows  by  gravity,  or  is  dis- 
charged through  sluices  to  the  storage  reservoirs.  Here 
further  settlement  takes  place,  to  permit  the  sand  and  water 
to  dissociate  themselves  entirely  from  the  oil,  the  time  re- 
quired to  bring  about  this  requirement  varying  according 
to  the  nature  of  the  petroleum.  During  the  summer,  when 
the  oil  becomes  heated  naturally,  and  is  consequently 
rendered  more  fluid,  the  natural  cleaning  process  is  com- 
pleted readily  and  speedily,  but  in  winter  the  lower  tempera- 
ture causes  the  oil  to  become  more  viscid,  so  that  the  settle- 
ment of  the  sand  is  retarded.  In  this  instance  purification 
is  assisted  and  accelerated  by  passing  the  oil  through  tanks 
in  which  steam-pipes  are  coiled. 

This  method  of  preliminary  purification  may  seem 
primitive,  but  experience  has  proved  it  to  be  extremely 
effective.  Oil,  which  upon  emergence  from  the  well  may 
have  a  content  of  impurities  bulking  to  50  per  cent.,  when 
drawn  from  the  settling  storage  reservoirs  will  be  found  to 
contain  only  2  per  cent,  of  deleterious  matter,  no  less  than 
48  per  cent,  having  been  removed  merely  by  permitting  it 
to  remain  stagnant  for  a  few  hours.  This  settlement  also 
achieves  another  desired  end.  The  oil,  as  it  comes  from  the 
well,  is  associated  with  large  quantities  of  gas  in  a  finely 
divided  or  dissolved  form.  While  the  settling  is  taking 
place,  this  gas  effects  its  escape.  In  intensely  hot  tropical 
climates,  when  the  shallow  tanks  containing  the  heavy  oils 
are  exposed  to  the  full  action  of  solar  heat  and  light, 
oxidation  takes  place.  If  left  for  a  sufficiently  long  time, 
the  oil  will  become  converted  into  an  extremely  thick,  viscid 
mass,  approaching  molten  tar  in  consistency.  But  if  the 
oil  is  protected  from  the  effects  of  the  sun,  oxidation  does 


THE  OIL  REFINERY  AND  ITS  EQUIPMENT     121 

not  take  place  to  a  perceptible  extent,  although  the  gases 
are  given  a  free  escape.  Consequently  the  oil  may  be 
stored  for  prolonged  periods  in  such  excavations,  so  long  as 
adequate  roofing  facilities  are  provided. 

When  the  impurities  have  been  reduced  to  an  insignificant 
bulk  by  passage  through  these  preliminary  settling  tanks, 
the  crude  petroleum  is  ready  for  the  refineries.  This  is  the 
most  important  and  intricate,  as  well  as  the  most  interesting 
and  fascinating,  stage  in  the  whole  industry,  because  it  is 
here  that  crude  petroleum  is  induced  to  resolve  itself  into 
a  variety  of  commercial  products  for  a  wide  range  of  opera- 
tions and  applications,  from  a  spirit  for  automobiles  to  a 
wax  for  candles,  or  an  oleaginous  preparation  for  dressing 
wounds;  from  an  illuminating  oil  for  the  table  lamp  to  a 
product  for  the  dye  industry,  or  a  material  for  the  making 
of  roads,  and  so  on.  Different  petroleums  yield  varying 
substances,  and  for  this  reason,  owing  to  the  fundamental 
constitution  of  the  crude  oils,  the  processes  vary  somewhat, 
because  paraffin  oils  yield  some  articles  impossible  of 
derivation  from  asphaltic  petroleum,  and  vice  versa. 

The  equipment  of  the  refinery  is  extensive  and  intricate 
in  character.  It  represents  an  enormous  investment  of 
capital,  and  it  is  for  this  reason  that  small  refineries  to-day 
cannot  compete  with  the  huge  concerns  bidding  for  the 
world's  markets.  It  costs  more  to  run  an  establishment 
representing  an  outlay  of  £100,000,  or  $500,000,  than  one 
which  has  involved  a  capital  expenditure  ten  tunes  as  heavy. 
The  latter  and  larger  organization  is  in  a  position  to  reduce 
the  manufacturing  costs,  by  virtue  of  its  equipment,  organi- 
zation, and  highly  trained  technical  skill,  to  a  figure  which 
the  former  never  can  hope  to  approach.  The  extensive 
character  of  its  plant  places  it  in  a  unique  position.  It 
can  compel  the  petroleum  to  yield  every  commercial  particle 
it  possesses,  and  to  turn  the  products  into  their  market- 
able channels,  merely  because  it  owns  the  facilities  for 
achieving  this  end.  The  small  refinery,  on  the  other  hand, 
is  able  to  concentrate  its  energies  only  upon  what  may  be 
described  as  the  staple  articles.  It  is  forced  to  ignore 


122          THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

many  possible  sources  of  revenue  merely  because  it  is  not 
in  a  position  to  derive  them  economically.  This  fact  is 
revealed  very  strikingly  in  connection  with  the  operation 
of  the  Standard  Oil  Company.  By  means  of  its  complete 
and  elaborate  plants,  and  its  command  of  the  foremost 
chemists  in  the  industry,  it  is  able  to  take  a  gallon  of  crude 
oil,  and,  by  submission  to  a  comprehensive  array  of  intricate 
processes,  can  force  it  to  give  up  every  trace  of  financial 
value  which  it  contains. 

The  various  commodities  are  resolved  from  the  crude  oil 
by  the  process  of  distillation.  The  stills  used  for  this 
purpose  follow  one  of  two  general  designs — the  horizontal 
cylindrical,  and  vertical  or  "  cheese-box,"  respectively. 
No  hard  and  fast  rule  concerning  the  design  of  the  still, 
capacity ,  or  method  of  heating  them  prevails .  These  factors 
are  governed  by  the  character  of  the  oil  to  be  handled,  and 
the  products  which  are  to  be  derived.  The  subject  of  stills 
is  one  of  considerable  complexity  and  of  interest  essentially 
to  the  technical  mind.  It  is  an  extremely  highly  specialized 
branch  of  chemistry,  physics,  and  engineering.  But  from 
the  elementary  standpoint  the  process  turns  upon  the 
application  of  heat  in  some  form  or  another,  which 
vaporizes  the  oil,  and  which  subsequently  is  condensed  and 
divided  into  its  various  classifications,  each  of  which 
coincides  with  a  marketable  group.  Thus,  for  instance, 
there  are  the  explosive,  the  illuminating,  and  the  lubricating 
oils  respectively.  Each  class  in  itself  can  be  further  sub- 
divided, and  the  subdivisions  split  up  still  further,  and 
so  on. 

The  horizontal  cylindrical  still  resembles  a  huge  steel 
boiler,  and  is  built  of  boiler-plate.  It  may  range  from 
30  to  40  feet  or  more  in  length,  and  from  12 J-  to  14  feet  or 
more  in  diameter.  It  is  built  into  a  brick  foundation,  the 
brickwork  being  continued  halfway  up  the  sides,  so  that 
the  upper  half  of  the  still  is  exposed  to  the  air.  As  a  rule 
these  stills  are  disposed  in  rows  or  batteries,  ranging  from 
two  or  three  to  ten  or  more  in  number,  for  the  sake  of 
convenience  in  operation.  Each  still  is  sufficiently  large 


A   TYPICAL    REFINERY   FOR   DEALING   WITH    PARAFFIN'    PRODUCTS. 


By  courtesy  of  the  Oil  Well  Supply  Company. 
A    HORIZONTAL   CRUDE   OIL-STILL. 
This  photograph  conveys  a  graphic  idea  of  the  immense  proportions  of  the  modern  oil-still. 


THE  OIL  REFINERY  AND  ITS  EQUIPMENT     123 

to  receive  from  600  to  1,000  barrels  of  crude  at  one  charge. 
On  the  top  of  the  tank  there  is  generally  a  dome  similar 
to  that  fitted  to  a  locomotive  boiler,  and  which,  in  fact, 
serves  the  same  purpose.  As  the  steam  in  the  railway-engine 
is  generated  it  passes  to  the  dome,  and  thence  is  led  to  the 
cylinders .  In  the  petroleum  still  the  vapours  or  gases  ascend 
to  the  dome,  and  from  there  pass  to  the  condensers. 

The  cheese-box  still  may  be  likened  somewhat  to  a  huge 
steel  drum  set  on  end.  It  has  a  domed  top  and  a  double 
curved  bottom.  Its  diameter  averages  about  30  feet,  while 
the  height  is  about  9  feet,  and  the  working  charge  approxi- 
mates 1,200  barrels.  These  stills  are  set  vertically  upon  a 
series  of  brick  arches.  The  methods  of  heating  are  extremely 
varied.  Some  are  fired  from  beneath  by  fierce  fires,  others 
have  their  contents  raised  to  the  desired  temperatures  by 
means  of  nests  of  coiled  pipes,  through  which  steam  is  cir- 
culated, and  so  on.  But  whatever  method  of  heating  is 
adopted,  the  primary  object  is  the  conversion  of  the  liquid 
within  the  still  to  a  vapour,  and  its  subsequent  reconversion 
to  a  liquid. 

The  condensing  apparatus  is  not  unlike  that  employed 
for  the  condensation  of  steam  into  water,  after  it  has  com- 
pleted its  designed  duty  in  the  steam-engine.  There  are 
huge  tanks  in  which  the  condensing  tubes  are  disposed,  and 
where  the  gaseous  contents  of  the  pipes  are  submitted  to 
a  chilling  process,  to  induce  the  vapours  to  assume  the 
liquid  form  once  more.  Water  is  employed  for  this  purpose, 
a  constant  cold  stream  being  brought  into  contact  with  the 
pipes.  But  one  of  the  most  remarkable  instances  of 
economy  in  oil  refining  is  to  be  found  in  connection  with 
this  process.  The  condensing  pipes  are  immersed  in  an  oil- 
tank  which  feeds  the  still.  Here  the  gases  are  forced  to 
surrender  a  great  deal  of  their  heat,  and  to  be  partially 
condensed.  While  they  are  so  doing,  the  oil  within  the  tank 
becomes  heated  to  an  appreciable  degree,  so  that  when  it 
enters  the  still  the  heating  process  virtually  has  commenced. 
Distillation  then  takes  place  sooner  than  if  the  oil  were 
passed  absolutely  cold  into  the  still.  The  waste  gases  of 


i24         THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

combustion  also  are  diverted  on  their  passage  from  the 
furnace  to  the  same  end,  so  that  by  the  time  they  pass  from 
the  chimney  into  the  outer  air  they  have  been  deprived  of 
almost  their  entire  heating  efficiency.  The  process  is  some- 
what analogous  to  that  practised  in  raising  steam,  where 
the  feed-water  to  the  boiler  is  subjected  to  a  preliminary 
heating  by  what  may  be  termed  "  waste  heat  "  before  it 
enters  the  boiler,  whereby  the  temperature  of  the  water  is 
raised,  so  that  less  time  is  required  to  complete  the  task  of 
converting  it  into  steam. 

To  a  certain  extent  the  refineries  are  operated  upon  self- 
supporting  lines.  A  certain  volume  of  gas,  which  has  no 
marketable  value,  because  it  cannot  be  reduced  to  liquid 
form,  is  given  off  by  the  oil  in  the  stills.  This  product  is 
diverted  and  led  back  into  the  furnaces  to  be  consumed  for 
steam-raising. 

The  oil,  as  it  arrives  at  the  refinery,  is  deposited  into 
tanks  of  the  familiar  form.  As  the  reduction  of  the  cost 
of  refining  to  the  lowest  possible  figure  is  imperative,  an 
adequate  supply  of  oil  must  be  available  to  keep  the  stills 
working  steadily  and  continuously  at  the  required  rate  of 
production.  As  the  oil  arrives  through  the  pipe-line,  it 
is  switched  from  one  tank  to  another  as  required,  and  the 
flow  from  the  tanks  to  the  stills  is  controlled  in  a  similar 
manner.  As  a  rule  the  oil  makes  but  a  brief  sojourn  in  the 
storage  tanks,  because  the  stills  dispose  of  the  crude  product 
at  a  remarkable  speed.  The  petroleum  is  pumped  from  the 
tanks  into  the  preliminary  heaters,  where  its  temperature 
is  raised  by  condensing  the  oil  vapours  as  already  described. 

Although  crude  oil  is  divided  into  two  broad  distinctive 
classes,  paraffin  and  asphaltic,  these  by  no  means  exhaust 
the  category.  Crude  petroleum,  having  a  pronounced 
sulphur  constitution  or  base,  is  known  as  sulphur  oil. 
Vast  quantities  of  this  petroleum,  often  known  as  Lima 
oil,  are  drawn  from  Ohio  and  Indiana,  while  until  recently 
it  was  the  only  grade  of  petroleum  found  in  Canada.  The 
presence  of  the  sulphur  formerly  rendered  this  oil  com- 
mercially useless.  It  imparted  an  extremely  noisome  smell 


THE  OIL  REFINERY  AND  ITS  EQUIPMENT      125 

to  the  article,  which  the  prevailing  methods  of  refining  could 
not  eliminate  or  even  diminish,  while  the  presence  of  this 
mineral  impaired  its  value  in  numerous  other  ways.  One 
has  only  to  recall  the  pungent  stench  of  sulphuretted  hydro- 
gen to  obtain  some  idea  of  the  aromatic  qualities  of  crude 
sulphur  oil.  Indeed,  the  Canadians  promptly  and  appro- 
priately nicknamed  it  "  skunk,"  which  probably  represents 
the  superlative  of  the  scent  standard  in  North  America. 

Sulphur  oil  was  first  brought  to  light  about  the  year  1868 
at  Petrolia,  Ontario,  Canada.  The  Canadians  valiantly 
endeavoured  to  turn  it  to  commercial  value,  but  in  vain. 
It  was  subjected  to  every  known  process  for  eliminating  the 
sulphur — submission  to  sulphuric  acid  and  soda — but  to 
no  avail.  The  smell  defied  conquest.  Attempts  to  ship 
it  in  this  condition,  in  the  hope  that  the  public  in  time 
might,  as  a  result  of  familiarity,  regard  it  with  contempt, 
brought  disaster  swift  and  sudden.  The  smell  was  not  only 
suffocating,  but  penetrating:  it  possessed  the  quality  of 
being  absorbed  and  retained  by  foodstuffs  and  other  articles 
of  commerce.  Flour,  bacon,  and  other  comestibles  dis- 
played as  marked  an  affinity  for  the  nauseous  aroma  as  a 
magnet  for  steel  filings,  and  the  odour  impaired  the  flavour 
of  the  edibles. 

The  inevitable  happened.  The  shippers  of  this  oil  were 
prosecuted  for  creating  a  dangerous  nuisance,  and  damages 
were  claimed  for  ruined  produce.  The  facts  could  not  be 
disputed.  "  Skunk  "  was  too  distinctive  to  provoke  possi- 
bilities of  mistaken  identity.  The  unsavoury  reputation 
which  this  oil  gained  brought  its  exportation  to  a  sudden 
termination.  Even  the  home  consumers  refused  to  have 
anything  to  do  with  it.  The  Canadian  Government  vali- 
antly endeavoured  to  support  the  home  industry.  It 
imposed  a  duty  of  9  cents  (4|d.)  per  gallon,  upon  im- 
ported Pennsylvania  oil,  but  Canadian  consumers  would 
rather  incur  this  extra  outlay  to  secure  a  wholesome  oil 
than  run  the  risk  of  being  shunned  by  their  neighbours 
for  miles  around  for  using  "  skunk  "  oil.  The  result  was 
that  the  Canadian  oil  industry  languished. 


126          THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

This  oil  deposit  evidently  extends  southwards  beneath 
Lake  Erie.  At  all  events,  when  the  drillers  of  Ohio  struck 
oil  in  the  vicinity  of  Lima,  they  were  disgusted.  They 
tapped  the  malodorous  sulphur  oil,  or,  as  it  was  dubbed  by 
the  drillers,  "  Lima  "  oil,  from  the  point  where  it  was  first 
found  in  the  United  States.  The  toilers  had  every  reason 
to  be  disgusted  with  their  luck.  The  Pennsylvania  paraffin 
oil  at  the  time  was  fetching  over  $2  (8s.)  per  barrel. 
It  was  difficult  to  sell  the  Lima  oil  for  14  cents,  or  yd.,  per 
barrel.  And  this  crude  petroleum  was  pouring  out  of  the 
earth  in  increasing  volume  with  every  successive  week. 

The  Standard  Oil  Company  came  to  the  rescue,  and 
fearful  of  the  waste,  spared  no  effort  to  turn  it  to  market- 
able account.  They  even  erected  a  special  refinery  at  Lima, 
and  turned  the  whole  of  the  chemical  skill  and  knowledge 
they  could  command  upon  the  task  of  removing  the  sulphur 
content  from  the  petroleum.  But  their  quest  proved 
futile.  Consequently  the  company  decided  to  place  the 
produce  upon  the  market  regardless  of  its  odour.  There 
was  every  inducement  to  go  ahead.  Some  30,000  barrels 
a  day  were  available  for  immediate  refining.  In  the  effort 
to  reclaim  a  part,  if  not  all,  of  its  properties,  the  Standard 
Oil  Company  restricted  their  energies  to  the  production 
of  an  illuminating  oil,  but  here  they  encountered  another 
and  equally  serious  drawback.  The  illuminating  oil  emitted 
an  enormous  quantity  of  soot,  which  soon  choked  the 
chimney  of  the  lamp,  and  in  addition  caused  violent 
smoking. 

The  organization  strove  to  force  it  upon  the  market  by 
sending  it  to  its  retailers,  but  the  latter  rose  in  rebellion. 
The  consumers  complained  loud  and  long  about  the  oil, 
voiced  dire  threats  of  going  elsewhere  for  their  necessities, 
and  confronted  the  shopmen  with  disaster.  In  dismay,  the 
retailers  sent  the  unsold  stocks  of  the  defective  oil  back  to 
the  manufacturers  with  all  haste.  Finally,  the  Standard 
Oil  Company  reluctantly  concluded  that  the  oil  could  be 
used  only  for  one  purpose — as  a  fuel.  Even  here  there  was 
some  difficulty  in  its  disposal;  but  the  company  made  the 


THE  OIL  REFINERY  AND  ITS  EQUIPMENT       127 

best  of  a  bad  bargain — built  a  pipe-line  to  Chicago,  where 
there  was  a  big  market  for  liquid  fuel,  and  sold  it  to  all  and 
sundry  at  7d.,  or  14  cents,  a  barrel.  Lima  oil  was  con- 
demned as  useless. 

In  the  meantime  the  Canadian  Government  had  come  to 
the  assistance  of  its  producers  and  refiners,  who  were 
suffering  severely  from  the  disability.  Scientists  were 
urged  to  take  up  the  problem,  and  they  wrestled  with  it 
valiantly,  but  to  no  avail.  They  could  not  remove  the 
objectionable  sulphur:  all  they  achieved  was  the  discovery 
of  a  means  of  disguising  the  noisome  odour  to  a  certain 
degree. 

The  struggle  between  science  and  Nature  had  aroused 
considerable  attention  throughout  the  world.  Workers  in 
every  country  took  up  the  problem,  realizing  that,  if  success 
were  achieved,  a  huge  fortune  would  be  made.  Producers, 
shippers,  and  refiners — more  particularly  the  Standard  Oil 
Company — expressed  their  readiness  to  pay  handsomely 
for  the  perfection  of  any  practical  means  of  increasing  the 
value  of  the  Lima  oil  from  the  existing  take-it-away  price 
to  that  prevailing  for  the  Pennsylvania  oils. 

Among  this  host  of  toilers  of  all  nationalities,  one  man 
set  to  work  quietly  and  unostentatiously.  He  had  followed 
the  troubles  and  developments  with  intense  interest.  He 
went  to  Canada,  purchased  a  small  refinery,  and  in  his 
laboratory  embarked  upon  a  well-defined  path  of  research. 
It  was  not  long  before  he  made  one  important  discovery. 
Minute  investigation  of  the  sulphur  content  of  the  Canadian 
oil  revealed  one  salient  point  :  Certain  metallic  oxides, 
when  associated  with  the  crude  oil  in  a  soluble  form,  dis- 
played a  striking  affinity  for  the  sulphur,  and  brought  about 
the  precipitation  of  the  latter.  Moreover,  he  found  that 
if  the  oil  were  thoroughly  saturated  with  the  oxide — that 
is,  if  sufficient  volume  were  added  to  precipitate  all  the 
sulphur  present  while  the  oil  was  undergoing  distillation — 
all  traces  of  the  sulphur  were  completely  eliminated  from 
the  resultant  products.  The  offensive  aroma  was  removed. 

Science  had  triumphed;  the  perplexing  problem  had  been 


128          THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

solved.  The  investigator  continued  his  researches,  with  the 
object  of  discovering  which  metallic  oxide  would  prove  the 
cheapest  and  most  commercial  to  employ.  Ultimately  his 
selection  fell  upon  copper,  and  for  two  reasons:  (i)  Because 
it  dissolves  into  the  petroleum  without  effort ;  (2)  because 
the  precipitant,  sulphide  of  copper,  is  readily  reclaim- 
able,  and  capable  of  easy  reconversion  into  oxide,  when, 
of  course,  it  is  available  for  further  use.  It  was  as  if  a 
perpetual  cycle  in  chemical  action  had  been  discovered. 

The  laboratory  experiments  indicating  a  positive  and  in- 
expensive method  of  bringing  about  absolute  de-sulphuriza- 
tion  of  Lima  and  Canadian  oil — they  are  virtually  one  and 
the  same  petroleum — the  inventor  proceeded  to  erect  a 
refinery  to  test  its  commercial  possibilities.  A  still,  22  feet 
in  diameter  by  16  feet  in  height,  capable  of  holding  some 
1,000  barrels  of  crude  oil,  was  built.  Practical  investigation 
supported  laboratory  discovery  in  every  particular.  The 
sulphur  oil  submitted  to  refining  in  accordance  with  this 
process  yielded  products  in  which  the  percentage  of  sulphur 
was  no  higher  than  in  those  obtained  from  the  high-grade 
Pennsylvania  oils.  In  other  words,  a  means  of  converting 
Lima  into  Pennsylvania  oil  had  been  found  and  perfected. 

These  experiments  were  commenced  in  1885,  and  were 
completed  and  duly  patented  within  about  three  years, 
which  tends  to  indicate  how  strenuously  the  investigator 
toiled.  The  man  was  Dr.  Herman  Frasch,  and  his  invention 
aroused  world-wide  attention.  He  achieved  a  triumph  which 
was  without  parallel  in  the  whole  romance  of  the  oil  in- 
dustry. In  1885  his  name  was  unknown;  four  years  later 
his  discovery  was  in  universal  request  wherever  sulphur  oils 
were  found.  It  was  the  first,  and  remains  as  the  only, 
economical  and  commercial  means  of  de-sulphurizating  oil. 
In  1912  the  scientific  toiler  received  due  recognition  of  the 
scientific  value  of  his  labour  by  the  bestowal  of  the  Perkin 
medal  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Great  Britain,  which  ranks 
as  one  of  the  most  highly  prized  awards  in  the  world  of 
science. 

Dr.  Frasch  lost  no  time  in  turning  his  discovery  to  account. 


THE  OIL  REFINERY  AND  ITS  EQUIPMENT       129 

His  methods  were  adopted  in  Canada,  and  the  former  much- 
maligned  Canadian  sulphur  oil,  which  hitherto  could  not  be 
given  away,  was  now  in  keen  demand.  It  carried  the  in- 
ventor's guarantee  that  it  would  be  found  equal  to  the  Pennsyl- 
vania oil.  The  Standard  Oil  Company,  which  had  expended 
a  fortune  over  the  problem,  but  to  no  purpose,  and  was  now 
suffering  from  a  glut  of  Lima  oil,  though  somewhat  sceptical 
of  Dr.  Frasch's  discovery,  displayed  its  characteristic  enter- 
prise. It  subjected  it  to  a  rigid  investigation  to  determine 
its  value,  its  experts  visiting  his  small  refinery  to  follow 
the  whole  process  from  A  to  Z,  and  submitting  the  resultant 
products  to  searching  tests. 

Precisely  what  this  organization  thought  of  the  discovery 
may  be  realized  from  the  fact  that  it  purchased  the  fruits 
of  Dr.  Frasch's  labours  lock,  stock,  and  barrel — his  patents, 
refinery,  and  even  his  skill  and  knowledge,  because  he 
became  the  mainstay  of  its  extensive  research  and  scientific 
staff.  Orders  were  given  that  the  Frasch  desulphurization 
process  was  to  be  put  into  operation  at  the  Lima,  Cleveland, 
Whiting,  Philadelphia,  and  Bayonne  refineries  with  all 
haste.  Simultaneously  the  producers,  who  had  been 
chafing  under  their  ill-luck,  were  requested  to  deliver  every 
gallon  of  Lima  oil  they  could  obtain,  while  the  drillers  were 
urged  to  resume  their  well-sinking  operations  in  all  direc- 
tions. Prospectors  likewise  were  induced  to  search  the 
country  to  ascertain  if  the  fields  extended  into  neighbouring 
territories.  A  Lima  oil  boom  set  in.  Farmers  gave  every 
assistance  to  enable  drilling  to  be  carried  out  upon  their 
lands.  The  drillers  overran  the  country,  and  laboured 
feverishly  with  their  tools,  while  the  producers  snapped  up 
every  barrel  of  oil  they  could  secure.  Lima  oil,  which  had 
been  difficult  to  sell  at  14  cents  (7d.)  per  barrel,  rose  rapidly 
in  price,  and  in  a  short  while  commanded  about  $1.00 
(45.)  a  barrel.  New  wells  came  into  activity  rapidly,  one 
after  the  other,  until  in  a  short  while  Ohio  and  Indiana 
were  yielding  a  round  100,000  barrels  of  sulphur  oil  per  day. 
By  this  one  discovery  an  entire  branch  of  one  industry  was 
revolutionized.  A  further  source  of  crude-oil  supply, 

9 


1 3o         THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

hitherto  considered  useless,  was  brought  under  commercial 
control. 

Two  or  three  years  after  the  above-mentioned  discovery — 
in  1902 — Dr.  Frasch  applied  himself  to  the  unravelling  of 
another  serious  oil  difficulty.  This  time  it  was  the  Cali- 
fornian  petroleum  which  was  occasioning  discontent  among 
purchasers.  The  oil  smoked,  and  no  improvement  in  the 
lamps  could  cure  it.  The  quest  in  this  instance  was  of  a 
different  character.  The  removal  of  the  cause  of  the  smoked 
chimneys,  and  not  odour,  was  the  objective,  the  Calif ornian 
oils  having  an  insignificant  sulphur  content.  Chemical 
research  speedily  revealed  the  cause  of  the  trouble,  the 
severe  smoking  arising  from  the  high  percentage  of  what 
are  known  as  the  "  aromatic  hydrocarbons  "  in  the  crude 
oil,  and  the  inadequate  proportion  of  hydrogen  to  carbon 
to  maintain  the  temperature  of  the  flame  to  bring  about 
perfect  combustion.  In  other  words,  the  whole  of  the  carbon 
could  not  be  consumed,  so  accordingly  became  deposited 
upon  the  glass  chimney  of  the  lamp  in  a  thick  soot,  in  the 
same  way  as  the  unconsumed  carbon  from  an  imperfectly 
designed  firegrate  using  coal,  collects  in  the  chimney. 

The  problem  was  the  removal  of  the  aromatic  series  of 
hydrocarbons,  and  the  discovery  of  a  means  of  restoring 
the  balance  of  hydrogen  to  carbon  to  insure  combustion. 
Elaborate  experiments  were  undertaken,  but  Dr.  Frasch 
found  that  the  simplest,  most  economical,  and  efficient 
method  of  achieving  the  desired  end  was  by  subjecting  the 
oil  to  a  treatment  with  sulphuric  anhydride.  Alternative 
methods  were  tested,  some  of  an  intricate  and  complex 
character;  but  the  foregoing  proved  the  most  advantageous 
from  the  commercial  point  of  view,  and  cured  the  smoky 
chimney  completely.  Accordingly,  the  Standard  Oil  Com- 
pany, for  whom  the  investigations  were  carried  out,  embraced 
the  process,  and  installed  it  without  delay  at  its  Port  Rich- 
mond refineries  in  California.  Another  "illustration  of  the 
thorough  manner  in  which  this  organization  carries  out  its 
work  was  given  in  this  instance.  It  was  essential  to  manu- 
facture the  sulphuric  anhydride  upon  the  spot.  Dr.  Frasch, 


THE  OIL  REFINERY  AND  ITS  EQUIPMENT       131 

as  a  result  of  his  researches,  recommended  the  adoption  of 
one  which  was  practised  in  Germany.  Forthwith  the  Verein 
Chemischer  Fabriken  of  Mannheim,  the  patentees  of  the 
desired  process,  were  approached,  and  induced  to  dispose 
of  their  patents  to  the  American  company  upon  attractive 
terms.  Californian  oil  refined  at  Port  Richmond  never 
once  since  has  been  responsible  for  a  smoke  complaint. 
The  success  of  the  application  and  Dr.  Frasch's  efforts  may 
be  appreciated  from  the  fact  that  the  refinery  has  undergone 
frequent  extensions  to  keep  pace  with  demand,  until  to-day 
it  is  the  largest,  using  the  sulphuric  anhydride  treatment, 
in  the  world. 


CHAPTER  X 
THE  OIL  REFINERY  AND  ITS  WORK 

THE  refinery  is  where  a  remarkable  miracle  of  industry  is 
wrought,  where  the  uninviting  crude  petroleum  is  forced 
to  resolve  itself  into  its  numerous  component  parts,  each  of 
which  possesses  a  distinct  commercial  value.  Crude  oil, 
as  such,  is  virtually  useless.  It  may  be  consumed  as  a  fuel, 
but  that  represents  approximately  its  limit  of  application. 
As  current  knowledge  reveals,  this  is  about  the  most  waste- 
ful purpose  to  which  it  can  be  put,  because,  even  after  every 
ounce  of  the  oleaginous  contents  have  been  extracted,  the 
residue  constitutes  quite  as  good  a  fuel  as  the  raw  material. 

As  the  conjurer  is  able  to  produce  rabbits,  flowers,  birds, 
and  other  objects  from  an  ordinary  hat,  so  can  a  wide  and 
varied  range  of  substances  be  drawn  from  petroleum,  and 
with  apparently  equal  mystery.  The  magician  is  the 
chemist.  Accordingly  it  is  not  surprising  to  learn  that  the 
skill  and  knowledge  of  the  scientist  are  at  a  heavy  premium 
in  the  oil-world.  Although  this  indefatigable  worker  has 
revealed  the  ways  and  means  of  obtaining  a  vast  range  of 
products  from  the  mineral  liquid,  his  task  is  by  no  means 
completed.  He  is  toiling  more  diligently  and  strenuously 
than  ever  in  the  hope  that  he  may  be  able  to  make  some 
more  unexpected  discoveries,  thereby  enhancing  still  further 
the  value  of,  and  dependence  of  the  community  upon,  oil. 
His  task  has  become  extremely  difficult,  for  the  simple 
reason  that  the  quest  has  been  narrowed  down  to  very  fine 
limits. 

The  process  employed  to  reduce  the  crude  oil  to  its  various 
component  parts  is  known  as  "fractional  distillation," 
which  is  quite  distinctive  from  destructive  distillation, 
132 


THE  OIL  REFINERY  AND  ITS  WORK  133 

although  the  latter,  too,  is  embraced,  especially  in  the  later 
stages  of  reduction.  As  the  term  implies,  the  process  is 
the  resolution  of  the  crude  into  its  fractions,  or  elements,  of 
constitution.  The  principle  governing  fractional  distilla- 
tion is  that  different  liquids,  under  a  common  pressure,  boil, 
and  consequently  evaporate,  at  different  temperatures.  If 
one  took,  say,  three  liquids,  the  boiling-points  of  which  were 
80°,  90°,  and  100°  F.  respectively,  mixed  them  together, 
then  placed  them  in  a  still,  and  heated  the  mixture  gradu- 
ally, the  first  component  would  release  itself  in  a  gaseous 
form  when  the  temperature  attained  80°,  the  second  would 
follow  suit  at  90°,  and  the  third  at  100°.  If  these  three 
vapours  were  led  into  different  receptacles,  and  there  were 
condensed,  the  three  original  constituents  of  the  mixture 
would  be  obtained. 

The  same  effects  take  place  to  a  certain  extent  when  oil 
is  submitted  to  gradual  heating,  only  petroleum  is  not  split 
up  so  definitely  and  readily.  Other  factors  intervene  which 
tend  to  render  the  process  somewhat  complex.  Petroleum 
is  composed  of  ingredients  which  possess  the  curious 
property  of  dissolving  one  another,  and,  as  a  matter  cf 
course,  it  is  not  a  simple  task  to  isolate  the  various  com- 
ponents. One  fraction,  as  it  comes  over  in  the  gaseous 
form,  is  associated  with  varying  quantities  of  each,  or  some, 
of  the  other  constituents  of  the  liquid.  The  foregoing  is 
essentially  a  broad  explanation  of  the  principles  governing 
the  process  of  fractional  distillation.  So  many  factors  and 
actions  enter  into  the  subject  and  process,  that  to  attempt 
to  set  forth  a  fully  comprehensive  and  lucid  detailed  descrip- 
tion of  what  occurs  under  the  application  of  heat  would 
only  confuse  the  ordinary  reader. 

Crude  oil  may  be  said  to  be  distilled  into  three  broad 
groups:  the  inflammable,  the  illuminating,  and  the  lubri- 
cating oils  respectively.  Each  of  these  series  contains  a 
number  of  smaller  fractions,  which,  in  due  course,  are  re- 
claimed. Thus  the  inflammable  oils  include  petrol  or 
gasolene,  benzine,  and  benzoline,  which  are  broadly  classed 
as  the  naphtha  group.  The  illuminating  oils  include  all 


134         THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

those  which,  as  the  name  implies,  may  be  employed  for 
lighting  purposes,  the  paraffins,  or  kerosenes;  while  the 
lubricating  oils  comprise  the  heavier  viscous  and  semi-solid, 
as  well  as  the  wax,  products. 

The  crude  oil  flows  into  the  stills,  where,  directly  its 
temperature  is  raised  by  the  heat  from  the  furnaces,  it 
commences  to  evaporate.  Petroleum  contains  one  or  two 
constituents — cymogene,  rhigolene,  etc. — which  have  a  low 
boiling-point,  and  are  extremely  volatile.  Thus  cymogene 
boils  at  32°  F.,  which  is  the  freezing-point  of  water,  while 
rhigolene  boils  at  62°  F.  These,  accordingly,  escape  at 
an  early  period.  Owing  to  the  low  temperatures  at 
which  these  two  constituents  evaporate,  they  are  virtually 
gases,  and  accordingly  are  classed  as  petroleum  ether. 
They  are  far  too  volatile  to  be  caught  and  condensed  in 
an  economic  manner,  it  being  possible  to  resolve  them  into 
liquid  forms  only  by  the  application  of  pressure.  In  view 
of  this  difficulty  to  condense  and  render  them  sufficiently 
stable  for  ordinary  commercial  need,  they  are  generally 
permitted  to  escape  from  the  still  to  be  conducted  to  the 
furnaces,  where  they  perform  a  certain  useful  function  by 
undergoing  combustion  to  contribute  to  the  heating  of  the 
stills.  Their  commercial  application  is  extremely  limited, 
being  restricted  to  freezing  machines  to  produce  cold  by 
rapid  evaporation. 

The  first  serious  step  to  recover  the  evaporated  products 
is  made  when  the  temperature  reaches  140°  F.  At  this 
point  the  petrol,  or  gasolene,  escapes.  This  is  the  most 
volatile  commercial  element  of  the  naphtha  series,  which 
comprises  all  products  evaporating  between  140°  and  338°  F. 
At  the  latter  temperature  the  paraffin  or  kerosene  pro- 
ducts, grouped  under  the  heading  of  illuminating  oils, 
change  to  gas,  and  continue  until  a  temperature  of  424°  F. 
is  reached.  The  oil  remaining  in  the  stills,  which  has  become 
increasingly  thicker  and  denser  as  the  more  volatile  con- 
stituents have  been  driven  off,  is  classed  generally  as 
lubricating  oils. 

It  may  be  explained  that,  although  the  thermometer 


THE  OIL  REFINERY  AND  ITS  WORK  135 

plays  an  important  part  in  the  distillation  process,  its 
utilization  is  confined  for  the  most  part  to  the  action  of 
evaporating  the  ingredients  of  the  crude  oil.  As  the  gases 
escape  from  the  still  and  pass  through  the  condensers,  they 
assume  the  liquid  form  once  more,  and  here  they  are  divided 
into  fractions,  according  to  their  specific  gravities  or 
densities .  The  specific  gravity  of  an  oil  is  the  ratio  of  weight 
of  a  unit  volume  of  oil  to  the  weight  of  the  same  volume 
of  water.  For  the  determination  of  this  point  another 
instrument,  the  Baume  hydrometer,  is  employed,  and  the 
specific  gravity  is  given  in  Baume  degrees,  the  specific  gravity 
of  water  in  this  instance  being  taken  as  10°  Baume — in  fact, 
the  reading  of  this  apparatus,  which  gives  thespecific  gravity 
or  density  of  the  distillate,  as  the  condensed  liquid  is  called, 
constitutes  the  standard  means  of  deciding  the  commercial 
value  or  classification  of  the  refined  oil  products.  The 
lighter  oils  have  a  high  reading  on  the  scale,  while  the 
heavier  have  a  lower  value.  Thus,  for  instance,  the 
petroleum  ether,  composed  of  cymogene  and  rhigolene, 
has  a  specific  gravity,  ranging  between  0*590  and  0*625; 
petrol  or  gasolene,  0-636  to  0*657;  while  the  succeed- 
ing naphthas  vary  from  0*657  to  °'775-  At  the  other  end 
of  the  scale  come  the  lubricating  oils,  the  specific  gravities 
of  which  range  from  0*850  downwards. 

As  the  more  volatile  products  are  the  first  to  evaporate 
under  the  application  of  heat,  so  they  are  the  first  to  be 
resolved  once  more  into  the  liquid  form  when  passing 
through  the  condensers.  The  latter  are  connected  to 
receivers,  or,  as  they  are  termed,  "  cut  "  tanks,  so  called 
because  the  flow  of  the  liquid  can  be  intercepted  or  "  cut," 
and  diverted  from  one  tank  to  another  as  desired.  On  this 
part  of  the  run  the  oil  often  traverses  what  is  known  as  a 
"  sight  "  box,  which,  owing  to  the  provision  of  suitable 
transparent  windows,  enables  the  flow  of  the  distillate  to 
be  observed. 

The  action  of  separating  the  distillate  into  its  broad 
groupings  is  simple.  The  outflows  from  the  condenser  of 
several  stills  lead  to  one  point.  Here  is  stationed  an  operator 


i36         THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

called  the  "  stillman,"  equipped  with  a  hydrometer  and  a 
thermometer.  The  first  keeps  him  in  touch  with  the  specific 
gravity  of  the  flowing  distillate;  the  second  shows  a  record 
of  temperature.  By  means  of  the  latter  he  is  able  to  instruct 
the  firemen  to  increase  or  slacken  the  fires  as  required. 
From  this  point  the  pipes  extend  to  the  "  cut  "  tanks, 
each  of  which  is  designed  to  hold  the  distinctive  grade  of 
distillate. 

In  order  to  reduce  the  process  of  distillation  to  its 
simplest  form,  we  will  suppose  that  the  distillates  are  to  be 
resolved  into  three  broad  groups  or  series.  The  stillman, 
directly  the  flow  commences,  tests  the  liquid  with  his 
hydrometer.  The  reading  shows  that  the  naphthas  are 
coming  over,  and  accordingly  the  liquid  is  turned  into  the 
designed  receptacle.  Frequent  tests  with  the  hydrometer 
reveal  the  fact  that  the  specific  gravity  of  the  distillate  is 
falling  steadily,  proving  that  the  most  volatile  compounds 
of  the  crude  oil  are  becoming  exhausted,  although  there  is 
no  diminution  in  the  volume  of  distillate  flowing.  In  due 
course  the  hydrometer  gives  the  reading  indicating  the 
line  dividing  the  inflammable  from  the  illuminating  oils. 
The  operator  shuts  off  the  flow  to  the  naphtha  tanks,  and 
sends  it  into  another  series  of  receptacles,  because  the 
illuminating  oils  are  now  being  yielded.  The  distillate  is 
still  watched  closely,  and  hydrometer  tests  made  at  frequent 
intervals  until  the  specific  gravity  reaches  the  line  of 
demarcation  between  the  illuminating  and  lubricating  oils, 
when  the  flow  of  distillation  is  diverted  once  more,  since  the 
lubricating  oils  now  are  being  produced. 

But  each  of  these  three  broad  groups  not  only  contains 
its  particular  grade  of  oil,  but  also  the  constituents  of  the 
other  two  groups  to  a  greater  or  lesser  degree.  Moreover, 
although  the  first  distillate  is  classed  as  the  "  naphthas," 
it  has  to  be  split  up  further,  generally  into  five  subdivisions, 
or  fractions.  To  achieve  this  purpose,  each  group  is  sub- 
jected to  a  further  distillation  by  steam,  and  as  the  distillate 
runs,  it  is  turned  into  the  various  tanks  successively,  accord- 
ing to  the  hydrometer  readings.  The  illuminating  oils  are 


FIRING   THE   STILL. 

The  regulation  of  the  heat  constitutes  a  vital  factor  in  the  distilling  pr 


"AGITATORS." 

Owing  to  the  products  of  distillation,  or  "distillates,"  being  of  an  unmarketable 
colour,  or  containing  certain  adverse  components,  they  are  submitted  to  a  cleansing 
process.  In  these  towers  the  oil  is  associated  with  concentrated  sulphuric  acid,  and 
a  powerful  air-blast  is  driven  through  the  mass,  which  sets  up  chemical  actions  and 
reactions. 


To  face  page  137. 


THE  OIL  REFINERY  AND  ITS  WORK  137 

subjected  to  a  similar  treatment  to  secure  subdivision,  and 
any  oils  lighter  than  0-800  are  driven  off  and  added  to  the 
first  distillate. 

The  oil  remaining  in  the  still,  after  the  naphthas  and 
illuminating  oils  have  passed  over,  is  chilled,  and  then  broken 
up  into  various  fractions.  The  process,  which  may  be  called 
a  freezing  one,  causes  the  paraffin  present  to  crystallize. 
This  semi-solid  mass  is  placed  in  canvas  bags  and  subjected 
to  intense  pressure,  which  drives  out  all  the  loose  oil  which 
may  be  present.  The  third  distillate  fraction  is  subjected 
to  a  variety  of  processes,  including  chemical  treatment, 
filtration,  further  refining,  and  so  on,  for  the  purpose  of 
extracting  every  oleaginous  fraction,  while  the  residue  itself 
is  treated  and  re-treated  until  nothing  more  can  be  recovered. 

The  distillate  fractions  thus  obtained  possess  a  colour 
which  reacts  against  their  marketability,  or  contain  certain 
components  which  militate  against  their  successful  use  for 
the  purposes  intended.  These  defects  are  eliminated  by 
subjecting  the  products  to  chemical  treatment.  The  oil 
is  passed  from  the  "  cut  "  tanks  into  what  are  known  as 
"  agitators."  These  are  upright  cylinders  having  conical- 
shaped  lower  ends,  and  capable  of  receiving  several  thou- 
sands of  gallons  of  oil  in  one  charge.  Concentrated  sulphuric 
acid  is  associated  with  the  oil,  and  a  powerful  air-blast  is 
driven  through  the  contents  from  above.  The  deleterious 
substances  in  the  oil,  under  the  action  of  the  air-blast, 
exercise  a  striking  affinity  for  the  acid,  and  a  series  of 
chemical  actions  and  reactions  occur. 

This  treatment  causes  the  contents  of  the  agitators  to 
thicken  and  to  assume  a  black  colour.  Finally  the  mixture 
in  the  vessel  is  left  to  stand  to  allow  the  contents  to 
settle  into  layers  of  oil  and  "  sludge  "  acid.  The  latter, 
being  a  sediment,  is  drawn  off  from  the  bottom,  and  is  either 
subjected  to  a  process  to  regain  the  sulphuric  acid,  or  else 
is  utilized  in  the  manufacture  of  fertilizer  or  other  chemical 
productions. 

Upon  the  removal  of  the  sludge  acid,  the  oil  is  taken  to 
another  vessel  to  be  washed  with  water,  and  then  enters 


i38         THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

a  further  tank  to  be  scoured  with  an  alkaline  solution,  which 
removes  all  the  remaining  traces  of  free  sulphuric  acid,  and 
simultaneously  neutralizes  any  acid  salts  or  other  bodies 
which  may  be  present.  Then  the  alkaline  solution  is 
allowed  to  settle  and  be  drawn  off.  As  a  rule  this  repre- 
sents a  waste  product,  since  the  process  of  recovering  the 
alkali  is  not  sufficiently  cheap  to  be  profitable.  The  oil 
is  now  conveyed  to  another  tank  to  undergo  a  further 
washing  with  water  to  eliminate  all  traces  of  alkali,  after 
which  it  is  drawn  off  into  settling  tanks.  It  is  now 
ready  for  market,  although  it  may  be  subjected  to 
further  distillation,  sometimes  to  resolve  it  into 
further  fractions,  or  be  treated  with  steam  in  a  still  to 
be  reduced. 

Although  fractional  distillation  is  the  principal  process 
in  refining,  destructive  distillation  is  adopted  also,  especially 
in  connection  with  the  distillate  remaining  in  the  still  after 
the  full  range  of  illuminating  oils  have  been  driven  off  in 
the  course  of  fractional  distillation.  At  this  point  the 
fires  heating  the  still  are  slackened,  with  the  result  that  the 
process  of  distillation  proceeds  more  slowly.  The  vapours 
given  off  by  the  remaining  heavy  oil  do  not  pass  into  con- 
densers, as  in  the  case  of  the  lighter  products,  but  condense 
upon  the  chilled  surface  of  the  dome  of  the  still.  The 
beads  of  liquid  then  fall  back  into  the  hot  retort  to  be  re- 
evaporated.  In  this  second  vaporization,  however,  the 
liquid  suffers  decomposition,  and  is  induced  to  yield  other 
substances,  some  of  which  are  much  more  volatile  than  the 
gas  which  was  previously  given  off  and  condensed  upon  the 
dome  of  the  still.  This  cycle  of  conversion  from  liquid  to 
gas,  and  reconversion  from  gas  to  liquid,  is  continued  for  a 
prolonged  period,  with  the  result  that  a  large  volume  of 
gas,  the  predominating  ingredients  of  which  are  methane, 
or  marsh  gas,  and  hydrogen,  is  produced,  which,  after  con- 
densation, can  be  added  to  the  naphthas,  together  with  a 
distillate  which  coincides  with  the  specific  gravity  demanded 
for  illuminating  oils,  while,  thirdly,  there  is  a  heavy  tar- 
like  residue,  known  as  "  residum,"  left  in  the  still.  The 


THE  OIL  REFINERY  AND  ITS  WORK  139 

last  named  is  passed  to  the  tar-still,  where  it  is  heated 
and  passed  through  air  condensers,  at  three  points  of  which, 
coinciding  to  the  places  where  condensation  has  developed, 
it  is  trapped  and  drawn  off.  That  caught  at  the  first  trap 
is  a  distillate  yielding  paraffin  wax,  the  second  represents 
an  article  between  wax  and  illuminating  oil,  while  the  third 
comprises  illuminating  oil.  By  the  time  this  process  has 
been  completed,  the  last  remnants  of  the  crude  petroleum, 
from  which  every  vestige  of  the  oleaginous  ingredients 
have  been  extracted,  resemble  the  residue  from  the  coal- 
gas  retorts,  but  somewhat  blacker  in  colour.  This  is  known 
as  "  petroleum  coke." 

The  process  of  destructive  distillation  as  described  above 
is  known  as  "  cracking."  During  the  past  few  months  a 
great  deal  of  attention  has  been  devoted  to  "  cracking  "  in 
connection  with  various  processes  for  the  production  of  the 
more  volatile  elements  of  petroleum  from  heavy  oils,  but 
in  the  main  these  processes  are  far  from  being  new,  since 
the  method  is  in  daily  operation  in  all  the  largest  oil  re- 
fineries of  the  world.  In  these  latest  developments  improved 
apparatus  and  methods  may  enable  a  higher  proportion 
of  the  volatile  constituents  to  be  derived,  but  the  fact  must 
be  borne  in  mind  that  the  volatile  fractions  must  be  present 
in  the  oil  subjected  to  such  treatment,  otherwise  they 
cannot  be  derived  in  paying  quantities  any  more  than 
oxygen  can  be  extracted  from  carbonic  acid  gas.  Know- 
ledge of  this  fact  is  responsible  for  the  complacency  with 
which  the  leading  refining  companies  view  these  various 
developments,  since  the  chemical  skill,  which  by  virtue  of 
capital  resources  is  at  their  command,  enables  them  to 
keep  pace  with  every  development,  and  to  appraise  its 
commercial  value. 

The  output  of  the  various  constituents  of  petroleum 
from  the  refinery  is  governed  in  a  great  measure  by  com- 
mercial demands.  For  instance,  in  the  early  days,  the 
lighter  fractions — that  is,  the  naphtha  group — commanded 
only  a  very  limited  market ;  in  fact,  the  petrol  or  gasolene 
was  a  waste  product,  being  sold  in  very  limited  quantities. 


i4o         THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

The  pioneer  motorists  remember  the  days  when  motor 
fuel  had  to  be  purchased  from  the  chemists  or  drug  stores, 
and  when  the  request  for  more  than  a  pint  of  the  spirit 
occasioned  consternation.  The  refineries,  in  fact,  regarded 
these  fugitive  spirits  as  an  unmitigated  nuisance.  Their 
extreme  inflammability  restricted  their  possible  applica- 
tions very  severely.  The  lighter  fractions  as  a  rule  were 
collected,  and  at  frequent  intervals  were  dumped  into  a 
pit  and  ignited,  to  burn  harmlessly  away.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  demand  for  paraffin  or  illuminating  oil  taxed  the 
refineries  to  the  utmost. 

That  day  was  the  vogue  of  the  paraffin  lamp,  and  this 
oil  earned  the  popular  sobriquet  of  the  "  poor  man's  light." 
The  consumption  of  paraffin  reached  an  enormous  figure, 
not  only  in  the  United  States,  but  throughout  the  world. 

Then  came  a  sudden  change.  Baron  von  Auer  invented 
the  incandescent  gas  mantle,  and  an  enormous  fillip  was 
given  to  the  gas  industry.  The  gas  companies  embraced 
the  idea  of  supplying  gas  upon  the  prepayment  or  coin-in- 
the-slot  principle,  and  offered  to  equip  dwellings  with 
fittings  free  of  expense  to  the  tenant.  The  dangerous  and 
inconvenient  paraffin  lamp  had  been  tolerated  for  years, 
because  there  was  no  alternative.  Directly  the  new  move- 
ment in  connection  with  coal-gas  supply  came  into  being, 
the  working-man  adopted  it  without  hesitation,  because  of 
its  increased  safety,  cleanliness,  and  simplicity.  When  the 
idea  was  applied  to  cooking,  the  fate  of  paraffin,  so  far  as 
the  city  dweller  was  concerned,  was  sealed.  Even  in  the 
rural  districts  the  oil-lamp  fell  out  of  favour.  Mechanical 
ingenuity  contrived  a  perfectly  safe,  simple,  and  cheap 
lamp  in  which  petrol  or  gasolene  could  be  vaporized,  and 
be  used  in  conjunction  with  the  incandescent  gas  mantle, 
as  if  it  were  ordinary  gas,  and  in  this  manner  a  more 
brilliant  light  was  rendered  available  at  a  lower  cost. 
Electricity  and  acetylene  also  have  played  their  parts  in 
effecting  the  complete  supersession  of  the  oil-lamp,  which 
to-day  is  to  be  found  only  in  the  homes  of  the  rural  dweller 
and  the  unenlightened  aborigine. 


THE  OIL  REFINERY  AND  ITS  WORK  141 

The  transformation  was  as  remarkable  and  as  complete 
as  it  was  sudden.  The  refineries,  which  had  been  devoting 
their  energies  to  the  production  of  paraffins  upon  a  huge 
scale,  and  which  had  reaped  enormous  profits  for  the 
simple  reason  that  this  product  is  one  of  the  easiest  and 
cheapest  to  distil  from  the  crude  oil,  in  which  it  exists 
generally  in  large  proportions,  were  caught  with  enormous 
stocks  on  hand,  and  for  which  the  market  was  undermined 
completely.  The  price  of  the  article  fell  to  a  ruinous  figure. 
In  order  to  reduce  these  accumulations,  some  refiners 
declined  to  supply  any  other  petroleum  products  unless  a 
certain  quantity  of  paraffin  were  taken  as  well,  the  un- 
willing purchaser  being  left  to  his  own  devices  in  regard  to 
its  effective  disposal.  More  often  than  not  the  latter  used 
it  wastefully,  seeking  reparation  by  increasing  the  price 
of  the  products  which  were  in  demand.  Whilst  the  price 
of  paraffin  is  now  on  the  upgrade,  this  tendency  is  not  due 
to  a  revival  in  oil-illumination,  but  because  other  sources 
of  consumption  have  been  created,  such  as,  for  instance,  the 
paraffin  tractor. 

But  the  loss  of  the  paraffin  market  was  attended  by  a 
pronounced  gain  in  another  field.  The  high  speed  internal 
combustion  engine  demanded  petrol  or  gasolene  as  a  fuel. 
The  naphthas,  which  hitherto  had  been  the  bete  noire  of  the 
refineries,  were  offered  an  attractive  market.  The  waste 
product  came  into  demand,  and  to  such  an  unexpected 
degree  as  to  out-distance  supply.  This  demand  is  more 
acute  to-day  than  ever,  and  can  be  met  in  one  way  only. 
Slowly,  but  surely,  the  specific  gravity  of  motor  spirit  is 
being  lowered,  because  the  highest  grades  are  being  derived 
in  diminishing  quantities,  owing  to  the  changing  character 
of  the  crude.  The  paraffins  are  being  subjected  to  re- 
peated distillation  in  order  to  induce  them  to  yield  every 
drop  of  the  more  volatile  spirit ;  in  fact,  it  is  not  improbable 
that,  twenty  years  hence,  the  three  broad  groupings  of  the 
distillates  will  be  merged  into  two  classes — the  naphthas  and 
the  lubricating  oils.  The  present-day  higher-grade  oils  in 
the  illuminating  series  will  be  turned  into  the  inflammable 


i42         THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

class,  while  the  lower  or  heavier  oils  of  this  group  will 
be  merged  with  the  lubricating  oils.  In  other  words,  the 
refineries  will  devote  their  energies  to  the  production  of 
inflammable,  or  explosive,  and  lubricating  oils  respec- 
tively. Such  a  development  will  only  be  in  accord  with 
the  laws  of  supply  and  demand  as  expressed  by  the 
market. 


CHAPTER  XI 
WHAT  WE  GET  FROM  PETROLEUM 

WHAT  do  we  get  from  petroleum  ?  If  this  question  were 
submitted  to  the  average  individual,  probably  he  would 
produce  a  list  comprising  a  round  half  a  dozen  articles — 
those  with  which  he  is  most  familiar,  such  as  petrol  or 
gasolene,  naphtha,  paraffin,  or  kerosene,  and  lubricating 
oils.  True,  this  catalogue  would  be  fairly  complete,  but 
it  could  be  dismissed  as  imperfect,  since  it  would  indicate 
only  the  broad  groupings  of  the  series  of  products.  It  is 
not  conclusive,  for  the  simple  reason  that  each  classification 
is  divided  and  subdivided  to  meet  the  requirements  of 
exacting  commerce.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  over  200 
different  products  are  derived  from  petroleum,  each  of 
which  commands  a  distinct  marketable  value,  but  the 
majority  of  which  are  unknown  to  the  general  public,  because 
they  are  utilized  as  substitutes,  or  in  little-known  indus- 
tries, such  as  medicine  and  the  manufacture  of  aniline 
dyes. 

One  would  not  be  far  wrong  if  one  expressed  the  opinion 
that  the  community  to-day  eats,  drinks,  and  sleeps — in 
fact,  exists — upon  petroleum.  The  fact  that  a  round  200 
articles  are  obtained  from  this  liquid  mineral  conveys  a 
vivid  impression  of  the  varied  requirements  which  the 
nauseating,  unprepossessing,  raw  material  is  made  to  fulfil, 
and  also  of  the  immense  demand  that  is  made  upon  the 
chemist  to  fit  the  products  for  such  an  array  of  applications. 
It  emphasizes  the  extreme  dependence  which  the  world 
at  large  is  forced  to  place  upon  oil  to-day.  Mankind 
cannot  possibly  get  along  without  it.  It  is  the  most  useful 
and  ubiquitous  servant  which  ever  has  been  revealed.  It 
M3 


144  THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 
was  not  so  many  years  ago  that  coal  was  regarded  as  in- 
dispensable to  our  existence.  This  situation  prevails  no 
longer.  The  world  could  roll  along  very  comfortably  with- 
out coal :  it  would  not  miss  it  if  all  the  supplies  were  cut 
off  to-morrow.  But  if  the  oil  resources  of  the  world  were 
extinguished,  the  whole  advance  of  civilization  would  come 
to  a  dead  stop.  Every  mechanical  device  would  be  con- 
demned to  idleness:  machinery  cannot  move  without  oil 
any  more  than  the  human  frame  can  subsist  without  water. 
The  unique  value  and  indispensability  of  oil  lies  in  the  fact 
that,  not  only  can  it  be  made  to  fulfil  every  purpose  for 
which  coal  at  present  is  employed,  but  can  be  utilized  for 
a  host  of  other  applications  as  well. 

Perhaps  the  most  familiar  member  of  the  naphtha  group 
is  that  used  as  a  fuel  for  motor-cars,  which  has  become 
colloquially  known  as  "  motor  spirit."  But  this  is  not  the 
highest  unit  of  commercial  value  in  the  series.  This  posi- 
tion is  occupied  by  pentane,  which  has  a  specific  gravity  of 
0-625,  and  which  is  regarded  as  the  unit  of  light  measure- 
ment, the  term  "  one  candle  power  "  being  the  illumination 
emitted  by  a  pentane  gas  flame.  The  remaining  members 
of  the  group  of  inflammable  oils  following  motor  spirit  are 
subdivided  into  three  broad  classes,  known  respectively  as 
"  ,4 -naphtha,"  "  5-naphtha,"  and  "  C-naphtha,"  according  to 
their  specific  gravities,  and,  incidentally,  inflammability. 
4-naphtha  embraces  the  range  lying  between  0'68o  and  700 
specific  gravities.  This  is  used  mostly  as  a  fuel  in  spirit 
lamps  and  stoves,  both  in  its  untreated  distillate  form, 
and  when  purified  or  deodorized;  while  it  is  an  excellent 
solvent  for  resins  in  the  preparation  of  varnishes,  and  also 
in  the  manufacture  of  oilcloths,  as  well  as  being  a  fuel  for 
aeroplanes  and  racing  automobiles.  B-naphtha  includes 
benzine  (not  the  benzine  derived  from  coal  in  gas  manu- 
facture), the  deodorized  spirit  which  is  extensively  used  in 
pharmacy,  as  well  as  in  the  chemical  laboratory,  laundry, 
and  clothes-cleaning  trades,  and  is  the  representative 
motor  spirit  of  to-day.  The  C-naphtha,  with  its  specific 
gravity  falling  between  0730  and  0750,  is  used  largely  as 


WHAT  WE  GET  FROM  PETROLEUM  145 

a  substitute  for  cheap  grades  of  turpentine  in  the  printing, 
dyeing,  and  painting  industries. 

The  second  group  of  distillates  comprises  all  the  oils 
which  are  used  for  illuminating  purposes — that  is,  in  lamps 
for  the  emission  of  light,  whether  it  be  a  humble  glimmer 
in  the  bedroom,  or  a  brilliant  penetrating  beam  cast  from 
a  lighthouse  to  warn  those  who  move  on  the  seas.  In  this 
instance  extreme  confusion  prevails,  owing  to  the  various 
names  given  to  one  product.  It  embraces  all  the  members 
having  specific  gravities  between  0*744  and  0*820,  and  may 
be  defined  as  the  paraffin  or  kerosene  series.  While 
paraffin  ranks  as  a  German  discovery,  having  first  been 
obtained  from  wood-tar  in  1830  by  Baron  Reichenbach, 
it  was  the  Englishman,  Mr.  James  Young,  who,  in  1850, 
placed  its  production  upon  a  commercial  basis,  and  who 
was  the  first  to  refine  it  from  crude  petroleum  and  from 
coal,  as  described  in  a  previous  chapter. 

The  market  value  of  paraffin  is  governed  not  only  by 
its  specific  gravity,  but  also  by  colour,  flash,  and  burning 
points.  The  colour  difficulty  is  removed  by  purification 
and  redistillation,  the  ultimate  article  ranging  in  line  from 
water-white,  which  grade  constitutes  the  hall-mark  of 
excellence  in  illuminating  oils,  to  a  distinct  yellow  tinge. 
The  flash  and  burning  points  are  far  more  important. 
The  flash  point  indicates  the  lowest  temperature  at  which 
the  oil  will  emit  a  vapour,  which,  upon  mixing  with  the  air, 
will  form  an  explosive  or  combustible  compound  when 
brought  into  contact  with  a  naked  light  or  some  other  form 
of  ignition.  It  is  a  critical  factor,  because  thereby  the 
element  of  safety  to  the  user  is  determined.  In  Great 
Britain  the  number  of  fatalities  arising  from  the  explosion 
of  paraffin  oil,  as  used  in  the  household  lamps,  prompted 
a  Government  inquiry.  Here  the  whole  subject  was  threshed 
out  thoroughly,  and  with  a  view  to  determining  a  safe 
flash-point.  A  temperature  of  73°  F.  was  finally  de- 
cided as  meeting  the  case,  and  accordingly  an  Act  was 
drawn  up  governing  the  storage,  carriage,  and  hawking  of 
oils  emitting  inflammable  vapours  below  this  temperature. 

10 


146          THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

Those  above  this  danger-point  were  free  from  such  re- 
strictions. Subsequently  another  investigation  was  held 
to  consider  the  advisability  of  raising  the  flash-point,  and 
this  commission  recommended  that  it  should  be  increased 
to  100°  F.  The  burning-point  represents  the  temperature 
at  which  the  body  of  oil  can  be  ignited,  and  which,  when 
fired,  will  burn  freely  and  continuously. 

The  flash  and  burning  points  vary  with  the  quality 
of  the  oil.  Generally  speaking,  the  flash-point  now  varies 
from  120°  F.  upwards,  while  the  burning-point  lies  between 
150°  and  300°  F.  The  water-white  oils,  or  paraffins  of 
lower  flash  and  burning  points,  are  those  generally  used, 
the  higher  grades  being  reserved  for  special  purposes  where 
a  readily  ignitible  oil  is  not  desired,  such  as,  for  instance, 
in  lighthouse  illumination.  Oil  lighting,  however,  is  dis- 
appearing rapidly  in  the  household,  owing  to  the  cheapness 
and  facilities  attending  the  consumption  of  gas  in  connection 
with  the  incandescent  mantle,  and  to  the  advances  of 
electric  lighting.  Even  in  lighthouses  the  demand  is 
decreasing  rapidly,  because  it  is  being  displaced  by  dissolved 
acetylene,  and  also  by  resort  to  vapour  gas  in  conjunction 
with  the  incandescent  mantle,  whereby  a  more  powerful, 
penetrating,  and  brilliant  light  is  procured  at  less  expense. 

The  higher,  or  more  refined  and  purer,  grades  of  paraffin 
are  being  used  more  extensively  as  substitutes.  Thus  we 
have  mineral  sperm,  mineral  colza,  and  mineral  seal  oils, 
which  are  cheap  substitutes  for  the  genuine  articles  derived 
from  the  respective  fish  and  vegetable  kingdoms.  They 
are  not  as  good  as  the  original  articles,  as  they  are  deficient 
in  their  outstanding  properties,  but,  owing  to  the  high  price 
of  the  genuine  substances,  they  constitute  fairly  effective 
make-shifts. 

Paraffin  in  a  highly  purified  and  deodorized  form  is 
becoming  more  extensively  utilized  in  the  medical  world, 
while  at  the  moment  interesting  experiments  are  in  progress 
to  adapt  it  for  comestible  purposes.  Vegetable  oils  dominate 
the  last-named  situation  at  the  moment,  but  chemical 
science  expresses  the  opinion  that  mineral  oil  eventuaUy 


WHAT  WE  GET  FROM  PETROLEUM  147 

will  be  made  quite  as  suitable  for  the  required  purposes. 
The  difficulties  so  far  have  been  connected  with  the  complete 
removal  of  taste  and  odour,  as  well  as  the  solidification  of 
the  product.  A  low  melting-point  is  demanded,  and  if 
this  can  be  achieved  by  chemical  agency,  the  utilization 
of  paraffin  in  this  field  is  assured,  particularly  in  the  manu- 
facture of  artificial  butters,  confectionery,  and  various 
other  domestic  edibles. 

The  last  group,  that  of  the  lubricating  oils,  is  probably 
the  most  productive  of  materials  adapted  to  the  exigencies 
of  commerce,  apart  from  the  lubrication  of  machinery. 
An  efficient  lubricating  oil  must  possess  high  viscosity, 
high  flash,  and  burning  points,  as  well  as  a  low  setting- 
point.  The  means  of  obtaining  these  oils  and  their  adapta- 
bility to  specific  purposes  are  extremely  varied.  The 
lightest  are  really  the  heaviest  in  the  illuminating  series, 
and  are  generally  submitted  merely  to  a  filtering  operation. 
The  varying  degrees  of  heavier  oils  are  derived  by  sub- 
mitting the  oil  remaining,  after  the  first  and  second  main 
distillates  have  passed  over,  to  further  distillation,  so  as  to 
drive  out  all  remaining  particles  of  inflammable  and  illu- 
minating oils,  extreme  care  being  observed  to  prevent 
jcracking.  In  the  case  of  paraffin  oils,  a  heavy  contribution 
to  the  lubricating  series  is  obtained  by  taking  the  wax 
from  the  tar  stills,  freezing  it,  and  then  submitting  it  to 
enormous  pressure,  which  has  the  effect  of  causing  the 
paraffin  remaining  in  loose  suspension  in  the  wax  to  be 
expressed. 

From  the  lubricating  series  an  extensive  array  of  products 
are  derived.  When  the  heavy  oil  known  as  "  cylinder  stock  " 
is  passed  through  a  suitable  filter,  vaseline  results,  the  colour 
of  this  article  depending  upon  the  extent  of  filtration. 
The  article  is  then  combined  with  a  certain  proportion  of 
paraffin  to  impart  the  necessary  consistency  and  melting- 
point.  Ointments,  salves,  and  drugs  are  also  associated 
prominently  with  petroleum  products.  The  American 
chews  petroleum  the  whole  day  through,  his  inseparable 
companion,  chewing  gum,  having  a  petroleum-wax  base. 


148         THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

The  waxes  obtained  from  the  tar  stills  are  utilized  in 
various  ways.  The  traces  of  loose  paraffin  are  removed 
by  submitting  the  wax  to  pressure,  dressing  with  chemicals, 
sweating,  and  dissolution  in  naphtha.  The  sweating  is  the 
most  simple  process.  The  wax,  in  the  form  of  cakes,  is 
disposed  in  trays  in  a  room  which  is  gradually  heated  to  a 
certain  degree.  The  loose  paraffin,  having  the  lowest 
melting-point,  becomes  liquefied,  and  drips  away  to  be 
collected,  this  heating  process  being  continued  until  the 
requisite  degree  of  separation  is  obtained. 

In  the  arts  and  manufactures  this  wax  plays  a  very 
prominent  part.  Its  recovery  upon  an  extensive  scale 
assisted  in  the  relegation  of  the  tallow  dip  and  its  noisome 
light  to  the  limbo  of  things  that  were.  It  gave  the  world 
the  wax  candle,  cleaner  to  handle,  emitting  a  brighter  light, 
improved  wick  dispensing  with  periodical  snuffing,  and 
absence  of  smell  during  combustion.  In  its  pure  form, 
however,  the  wax  is  not  sufficiently  stable,  so  a  proportion 
of  stearic  acid  is  added,  and  in  this  way  the  tendency  to 
soften  and  to  bend  while  burning  and  in  hot  weather,  is 
overcome.  The  textile  industry  absorbs  immense  quanti- 
ties of  this  material  for  finishing  soft  goods,  while  the  laun- 
dries are  also  appreciable  consumers,  the  wax  being  utilized 
to  impart  the  lustre  or  polish  to  the  linen  articles  of  attire, 
such  as  collars  and  shirts. 

The  perfume  spray  is  an  indispensable  attribute  to  my 
lady's  dressing-table,  but  the  fragrant  spirit  within  would 
be  unobtainable  but  for  petroleum.  Paraffin  wax  is  used 
for  the  purpose  of  absorbing  the  scent  from  the  flowers  in 
the  process  of  enfleurage.  Preserved  fruits  with  their 
coverings  of  crystallized  sugar  are  appetizing  and  toothsome, 
but  their  attractive  appearance  is  due  to  paraffin  wax. 
In  the  match-making  industries  the  consumption  of  wax 
attains  a  huge  figure,  both  for  the  wax  and  wooden  articles. 
In  the  former  the  cotton  fibres  are  consolidated  with  this 
material,  while  in  the  second  instance  the  small  wooden 
sticks  are  dipped  into  a  solution  to  become  impregnated 
therewith,  so  that  combustion  may  be  assured.  Innumer- 


WHAT  WE  GET  FROM  PETROLEUM  149 

able  other  applications  might  be  cited,  the  foregoing  being 
only  a  few  of  the  foremost  in  the  fields  in  which  this  com- 
modity is  in  demand.  There  are  numerous  other  industries 
in  which  the  wax  is  used  upon  a  limited  scale. 

By  mixing  petroleum  products  with  animal  oils,  what  are 
known  as  "  compound  oils  "  are  produced.  In  this  instance 
the  fields  of  utility  are  practically  illimitable.  Such  blend- 
ing, not  only  with  oils  from  the  animal  and  vegetable  king- 
doms, but  with  a  variety  of  other  materials,  provides  a 
range  of  combinations  which  is  almost  infinite.  New 
developments  are  being  revealed  every  day,  and,  com- 
mercial practicability  being  assured,  the  triumphs  pass  from 
the  laboratory  to  the  manufacturing  fields.  In  this  par- 
ticular sphere  the  chemist  and  scientist  have  extraordinary 
opportunities,  of  which  they  are  making  the  fullest 
avail. 

Waste  in  the  oil  refinery  is  unknown.  What  the  -un 
initiated  might  consider  as  being  useless,  the  refiner  turns 
to  profitable  account.  For  this  reason  the  term  "  residuum" 
or  "  residue,"  which  represents  the  solids  remaining  after 
the  volatile  products  have  been  taken  away,  is  a  misnomer. 
In  the  case  of  the  paraffin  oils  a  coke  is  all  that  is  left  after 
the  process  has  been  completed.  As  already  mentioned, 
this  forms  an  excellent  fuel,  but  there  is  a  far  more  profitable 
application  available.  This  is  in  the  manufacture  of  the 
carbons  for  electric  arc-lights,  and  this  industry  absorbs  the 
major  part  of  the  yield.  In  the  case  of  the  asphaltic  oils, 
asphalt  remains  in  the  stills  after  the  volatile  products  have 
been  evaporated.  Road-making  absorbs  this  residue.  This 
material  is  not  only  rapidly  displacing  the  ordinary  metal- 
ling used  in  macadam  road  construction,  but  is  threatening 
to  supersede  the  natural  product  from  the  Pitch  Lake  in 
Trinidad.  Curiously  enough,  the  latter  cannot  be  used  for 
road-making  purposes  without  the  former.  The  residuum 
from  the  petroleum  still  has  to  be  used  as  a  flux,  as  explained 
in  another  chapter. 

The  Mexican  petroleum  residue  is  challenging  the  Trinidad 
product  very  aggressively .  The  possibilities  of  this  material , 


i5o         THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

and  the  fact  that  road-building  engineers  are  realizing  that 
road-construction  methods  demand  revision  to  meet  modern 
conditions,  have  been  responsible  for  increased  attention 
being  devoted  to  the  preparation  of  the  asphalt  for  this 
purpose.  Mexphalte  is  not  a  residue  in  the  accepted  sense 
of  the  word,  but  is  subjected  to  special  treatment  in  order 
to  provide  a  solid  pure  bitumen.  Roads  have  been  laid 
in  Europe  and  the  British  Isles  with  this  material,  produced 
from  Mexican  petroleum,  and  the  advantages  of  the  sub- 
stance, as  compared  with  stone  and  wet  rolling,  have  been 
revealed.  Not  only  is  the  road  more  durable,  will  with- 
stand the  heaviest  wear  and  tear  arising  from  the  most 
severe  traffic  without  disintegrating,  is  dustless  and  noise- 
less, but  maintenance  charges  show  a  pronounced  reduc- 
tion. 

The  pure  bitumen  which  accrues  from  this  special  treat- 
ment of  the  asphalt  residue  also  commands  an  individual 
market,  being  in  demand  for  the  manufacture  of  cables, 
for  the  transmission  of  electricity,  as  well  as  for  telegraph 
and  telephone  purposes.  Even  what  may  be  described  as 
the  fluid  residue  resulting  from  the  preparation  of  the  solid 
bitumen  is  not  wasted.  It  is  used  for  dressing  ordinary 
roads  to  lay  the  dust  evil.  Fluxphalte,  as  this  material  is 
termed,  contains  60  per  cent,  of  solid  pure  bitumen,  which 
when  deposited  forms  a  resilient,  durable,  and  also  noiseless 
asphaltic  covering  to  the  road  surface.  Gas  tar  was 
formerly  employed  for  this  purpose,  but  the  outcry  against 
the  substance  and  the  devastation  the  poisonous  matter 
associated  therewith  wrought  upon  plant  as  well  as  fish  life 
in  streams  and  rivers  brought  about  its  abolition.  Flux- 
phalte performs  the  same  office  in  a  superior  degree;  its 
prime  cost  is  no  heavier  than  tar,  while,  owing  to  the  longer 
life  of  a  dressing,  it  is  cheaper  in  the  long-run. 
^  In  the  early  days  of  refining  what  may  be  termed  the 
"  residues  "  were  abandoned,  because  their  commercial 
values  were  not  appreciated.  Creosote  was  used  to  a  cer- 
tain extent  by  farmers,  who  dipped  their  fence-posts  in  the 
liquid  to  give  them  a  longer  span  of  life,  rotting  being  arrested, 


WHAT  WE  GET  FROM  PETROLEUM  151 

but  that  was  approximately  the  only  use  made  of  the 
material.  Creosote  still  is  used,  but  nowadays  it  is  regarded 
as  one  of  the  lesser  products. 

The  coal-gas  manufacturing  industry  is  generally  advanced 
as  one  of  the  most  remarkable  triumphs  of  chemical  dis- 
covery and  application,  owing  to  the  quantity  of  by-products 
obtained,  and  their  commercial  values.  But  the  oil  in- 
dustry is  far  more  extraordinary  in  this  respect ;  it  ranks  as 
a  far  more  impressive  illustration  of  human  activity,  and 
the  harnessing  of  skill  and  knowledge.  The  fact  that  a 
round  200  articles  are  derived  from  this  liquid  mineral  is 
convincing  testimony  on  this  point.  The  refiner  turns  every 
content  of  petroleum  to  commercial  account — except  the 
smell. 


CHAPTER  XII 
OIL  AS  A  ROAD-MAKING  MATERIAL 

ONE  of  the  most  widely  discussed  problems  of  the  moment  is 
that  of  the  design,  construction,  and  maintenance  of  public 
highways  of  communication,  both  in  city  and  rural  dis- 
tricts. The  methods  evolved  and  perfected  by  those  master 
road-builders,  the  Romans,  which  have  been  followed  more 
or  less  slavishly  through  the  centuries,  no  longer  suffice. 
Their  handiwork  was  adapted  to  the  relatively  slow-moving 
and  light  pedestrian  and  animal-drawn  traffic.  But  the 
times  have  changed,  and  methods  must  change  with  them. 
The  perfection  of  the  internal  combustion  engine  has  enabled 
mechanical  traction  to  supersede  all  other  forms  of  trans- 
portation upon  the  highway,  the  surface  of  which,  unable 
to  resist  weight  combined  with  rapid  motion,  disintegrates 
severely  and  speedily  under  the  ordeal  imposed. 

It  is  generally  admitted  that  the  whole  art  of  road-making 
must  be  revolutionized.  But  the  question  is— How  ?  The 
bogie  of  expense  is  disturbing.  The  reconstruction  of  the 
principal  highways  of  a  country,  in  order  to  meet  modern 
conditions,  would  involve  such  an  enormous  outlay  that 
even  a  Haussmann  would  shrink  from  tackling  the  question. 
The  engineer  knows  how  to  solve  the  problem  effectively, 
but  if  he  proposed  a  comprehensive  scheme  to  this  end, 
the  estimated  cost  would  provoke  such  an  outburst  of 
adverse  opinion  among  the  ratepayers,  who  would  have  to 
meet  the  bill,  that  the  daring  promoter  would  be  hurried 
into  oblivion.  It  would  be  useless  to  argue  that  "  first 
cost  would  be  last  cost  ";  the  public  is  not  sufficiently  en- 
lightened or  far-seeing  to  appreciate  the  significance  of  this 
line  of  reasoning.  Accordingly,  the  road-building  engineer 
152 


OIL  AS  A  ROAD-MAKING  MATERIAL  153 

is  compelled  to  make  haste  slowly,  and,  it  must  be  confessed, 
the  pace  is  very  slow  indeed. 

The  motor  conquest  of  the  highways,  however,  has 
brought  about  a  curious  situation.  Oil  in  one  form  repre- 
sents the  destructive  force  of  the  present  highway;  in 
another  guise  it  offers  a  completely  successful  constructive 
element.  The  volatile  constituents  of  petroleum  constitute 
the  fuel  for  the  explosion  motor ;  the  sediment  or  residue, 
known  as  "  bitumen,"  obtained  from  distillation,  offers  a 
road-building  material  which  is  capable  of  withstanding  the 
wear  and  tear  set  up  by  oil-driven  traffic. 

But  it  is  not  necessary  to  utilize  the  residue  from  the 
refineries  for  this  purpose.  Nature  herself  has  come  to  the 
assistance  of  the  engineer;  she  is  making  and  delivering  a 
ready-made  material  which  is  well  adapted  to  the  purpose. 
The  reserves  of  this  article  are  adequate  to  rebuild  all  the 
main  highways  of  the  world.  The  source  of  supply  is  the 
island  of  Trinidad,  the  principal  depressions  in  which  are 
filled  with  asphalt.  While  these  do  not  constitute  the  only 
known  beds  of  this  substance,  veins  of  asphalt  being  found 
in  California,  South  America,  and  other  oil-yielding  countries, 
yet  they  are  the  most  remarkable,  and  the  only  expanses  to 
be  worked  upon  a  commercial  basis. 

These  resources  of  Trinidad  were  discovered  by  Sir  Walter 
Raleigh,  and  he  christened  the  main  expanse  Pitch  Lake. 
The  name  is  appropriate,  because  it  resembles  a  sheet  of 
water  in  many  respects.  The  situation  of  this  asphalt  store- 
house is  about  half  a  mile  from  the  sea,  and  it  has  an  area 
of  about  127  acres.  Large  pools  of  water,  streams,  and 
rivulets,  fed  from  the  thermal  springs,  intersect  it  in  all 
directions,  while  it  is  freely  dotted  with  islands  clothed  with 
tropical  vegetation,  imparting  a  very  picturesque  appearance 
to  the  spot. 

Pitch  Lake  certainly  ranks  as  one  of  the  many  wonders 
of  Nature,  and  it  was  regarded  purely  as  such  until  the 
middle  of  the  nineteenth  century.  Then  one  or  two  enter- 
prising spirits  suggested  the  idea  of  extracting  oils  from  the 
pitch  by  submitting  it  to  a  refining  process.  But  the  yield 


i54         THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

of  volatile  constituents  was  so  meagre,  and  the  cost  of 
extraction  so  high,  that  the  endeavour  proved  financially 
impracticable,  especially  when  natural  petroleum-wells  were 
sunk  in  other  parts  of  the  world.  Once  more  the  Pitch 
Lake  reverted  to  a  curiosity,  until  scientific  investigation 
revealed  the  fact  that,  owing  to  its  peculiar  composition, 
the  asphalt  offered  a  first-class  road-making  medium. 

Spasmodic  effects  to  turn  it  to  account  in  this  new  field 
were  made,  but  they  were  not  very  promising,  recalling 
somewhat  the  working  of  claims  by  primitive  means  in  a  new 
gold-field.  In  1871  an  American  company  decided  to 
exploit  the  lake  upon  a  comprehensive  scale,  and  approached 
the  British  Government  for  the  requisite  concession.  The 
latter,  recognizing  the  opportunity  to  improve  the  island's 
treasury,  discussed  the  project.  An  equitable  and  mutually 
satisfactory  export  duty  and  royalty  basis  were  prepared, 
and  a  concession  for  twenty-one  years  was  extended.  With 
their  characteristic  energy,  the  Americans  laid  down  a 
plant,  including  tramways,  aerial  railway,  and  a  jetty,  along- 
side which  steamers  could  be  loaded.  Simultaneously,  the 
advantages  of  Trinidad  Lake  asphalt  for  road-making  pur- 
poses were  advertised  far  and  wide,  with  the  result  that  the 
trade  expanded  rapidly,  until  an  annual  output  of  150,000 
tons  of  asphalt  was  attained  at  the  end  of  the  concessionary 
period.  During  the  twenty-one  years  of  its  activity  the 
American  company  excavated  and  shipped  2,210,586  tons 
from  the  lake,  from  which  the  Government  derived  an 
aggregate  revenue  of  £735,962  ( $3,679,810) .  In  face  of  such 
a  result,  it  is  not  surprising  that  the  authorities  granted  a 
renewal  of  the  concession,  especially  as  the  outlook  was 
particularly  attractive.  As  new  sources  of  consumption 
were  created,  the  output  of  pitch  increased  steadily,  no 
fewer  than  208,000  tons  being  exported  during  the  year 
1913;  while  there  is  every  indication,  owing  to  the  extended 
use  of  asphalt  for  road-making,  that  this  figure  will  be 
doubled  within  the  succeeding  decade. 

There  is  another  curious  feature  of  this  lake  which  compels 
attention:  It  gives  every  evidence  of  being  inexhaustible 


OIL  AS  A  ROAD-MAKING  MATERIAL          155 

As  rapidly  as  the  pitch  is  withdrawn  it  refills.  Several 
hundred  tons  may  be  removed  in  the  course  of  a  day,  yet 
thirty-six  hours  later  the  excavation  will  be  recharged  to  its 
original  level.  The  lake  may  be  described  as  a  huge  funnel, 
the  rim  being  formed  of  a  substantial  rocky  ridge,  which 
elevates  the  level  of  the  lake  138  feet  above  the  sea,  the 
spout  extending  into  the  interior  of  the  earth,  where  the 
pitch  is  formed,  and  which,  under  enormous  pressure,  is 
forced  to  the  surface  in  a  steady,  never-ending  stream. 
Evidences  of  this  pressure  are  afforded  by  the  numerous 
gas  bubbles  breaking  through  the  water  of  the  thermal 
springs.  The  asphalt  itself,  in  a  soft  condition,  is  driven 
upwards  through  these  pools,  with  the  result  that  the 
expanses  of  water  are  continually  changing  in  area  and 
shape,  while  the  islands  are  in  constant  movement  from 
one  point  to  another. 

The  aggregate  of  the  deposit  is  merely  a  matter  of  con- 
jecture. In  1894  an  effort  was  made  to  sound  the  centre 
of  the  lake  by  means  of  a  drill.  Asphalt  was  traversed  to  a 
depth  of  135  feet,  but  without  touching  the  bottom,  and 
the  asphalt  at  this  depth  was  similar  in  every  respect  to  that 
found  upon  the  surface.  Consequently  the  bowl  must  be 
filled  with  many  millions  of  tons  of  uniform  asphalt,  and  it 
is  certainly  the  largest  known  natural  deposit  of  this  material 
in  the  world. 

Seeing  that  the  pitch  is  being  expelled  from  the  bowels 
of  the  earth  in  a  constant  steady  stream,  one  might  naturally 
imagine  that  the  lake  would  be  so  hot  as  to  be  unapproach- 
able. This  is  not  so.  One  may  walk  about  the  surface 
without  experiencing  the  slightest  ill-effects.  The  exposed 
area  of  pitch  has  the  same  temperature  as  the  surrounding 
air,  except  at  noon  during  the  intensely  hot  tropical  summer, 
when  it  may  reach  130°  F.  or  more.  Furthermore,  the  soft 
pitch — that  which  has  been  recently  forced  to  the  surface — 
is  no  hotter  than  the  solidified  parts  of  the  deposit. 

The  main  constituents  of  this  raw  asphalt  are  three  in 
number,  and  they  are  approximately  of  equal  proportions. 
Crude  bitumen  preponderates,  representing  39-3  per  cent.; 


156         THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

water  comes  second  with  29  per  cent. ;  while  mineral  matter 
averages  27^2  per  cent.  It  is  the  presence  of  the  inorganic 
matter  and  its  intimate  association  with  the  bitumen  which 
renders  this  lake  asphalt  such  an  excellent  road-paving 
material.  The  mineral  matter  is  in  an  extremely  finely 
divided  condition.  Evidently  Nature  is  operating  a  huge 
mill  in  the  depths  of  the  earth,  smashing,  grinding,  and 
pulverizing  the  mineral  constituents  to  the  consistency  of 
flour,  then  mixing  and  kneading  them  thoroughly  with  the 
molten  bitumen,  finally  delivering  the  resultant  product, 
when  the  requisite  uniformity  has  been  attained,  through  the 
spout  to  the  surface  of  the  lake. 

The  pitch  is  excavated  from  open  surface  workings  by 
native  labour.  Only  the  pickaxe  is  used,  and  with  this  the 
mass  is  broken  easily  into  irregular  shapes  and  sizes,  as  if 
it  were  a  kind  of  coal,  although  it  does  not  powder.  It  is 
dumped  into  trollies  and  transported  to  the  refinery,  which 
has  been  erected  on  one  side  of  the  lake.  The  pitch  is  not 
subjected  to  a  refining  process  comparable  with  that  fol- 
lowed generally  with  oils,  but  rather  is  boiled  without  being 
cooked,  the  object  being  to  drive  off  the  superfluous  water. 
Seeing  that  the  crude  asphalt  contains  about  30  per  cent, 
of  moisture,  the  preliminary  heating  materially  reduces  the 
unremunerative  bulk.  For  some  purposes,  however,  the 
crude  pitch  is  shipped  direct  from  the  lake,  subsequently 
being  refined  as  required. 

Care  has  to  be  observed  in  this  preliminary  heating  that 
the  temperature  is  not  raised  to  an  excessive  degree,  other- 
wise the  bitumen  is  ruined.  The  refined  lake  asphalt  is 
designated  "  epure,"  and  is  shipped  in  cheap  wooden  barrels 
without  ends.  The  package  is  cheap  and  flimsy,  costing 
about  2$d.  (5  cents),  and  is  used  merely  to  facilitate  hand- 
ling. In  this  purified  form  the  pitch  is  slightly  plastic, 
having  the  consistency  of  soft  india-rubber,  but  clean  to 
handle,  as  it  is  not  adhesive.  Every  cargo  of  lake  asphalt 
which  leaves  the  island  of  Trinidad  carries  a  certificate  of 
origin,  issued  by  the  local  Government,  which  serves  as  a 
guarantee  to  the  purchaser. 


OIL  AS  A  ROAD-MAKING  MATERIAL  157 

The  United  States  of  America  are  the  largest  consumers 
of  this  product,  Great  Britain  taking  about  25  per  cent,  of 
the  annual  output.  In  the  former  country  it  is  being  used 
more  and  more  extensively  for  road-making,  particularly 
in  the  towns  and  urban  districts ;  while  it  is  being  utilized 
more  widely  for  a  similar  purpose  in  these  islands.  In  fact, 
its  application  in  the  United  Kingdom  is  undergoing  ex- 
tensive and  rapid  development,  long  stretches  of  main 
country  roads  being  paved  therewith. 

In  the  epure  condition  the  proportion  of  bitumen  is 
55' 62  per  cent.,  the  mineral  matter  aggregating  36*85  per 
cent.,  and  insoluble  organic  matter  the  balance  of  7*53  per 
cent.  But  in  its  refined  form  it  is  useless  for  paving  pur- 
poses. The  peculiar  traffic  conditions  which  prevail  demand 
a  road  surface  with  the  maximum  of  resiliency,  immune 
from  disintegration  when  submitted  to  pressure  from  passing 
heavily  laden  and  rapidly  moving  vehicles,  combined  with 
durability,  and,  above  all,  capability  to  be  consolidated.  At 
the  same  time  it  must  be  sufficiently  plastic  to  facilitate 
application,  and  must  maintain  its  characteristic  elasticity 
under  all  and  varying  conditions  of  weather  and  temperature. 
To  secure  cementitiousness,  cohesiveness,  body,  and  stability, 
the  epure  asphalt  has  to  be  combined  with  a  bituminous  oil 
flux.  The  latter  is  the  residue  from  the  petroleum  stills. 
Fluxing  has  to  be  carried  out  with  extreme  care,  because 
upon  its  successful  completion  the  excellence  of  the  final 
product  vitally  depends. 

The  epure  asphalt  is  dumped  into  a  large  tank,  and  is 
heated  slowly.  The  temperature  must  not  be  raised  above 
320°  F.,  or  there  is  grave  risk  of  the  bitumen  being  burned 
and  its  inherent  properties  destroyed.  The  flux  is  likewise 
heated  slowly  in  another  tank  until  a  temperature  of  about 
175°  F.  is  reached.  The  proportion  of  flux  to  asphalt  varies 
considerably,  this  factor  depending  upon  the  purpose  for 
which  the  material  is  required,  and  where  it  is  to  be  used. 
When  the  constituents  have  been  duly  heated,  the  flux  is 
run  slowly  into  the  tank  containing  the  molten  bitumen, 
where  it  is  subjected  to  continuous  agitation  at  a  main- 


1 58         THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

tained  temperature,  until  the  two  ingredients  are  combined 
both  chemically  and  physically.  Then  the  product  may  be 
drawn  off  for  immediate  use,  or  barrelled  until  required. 

The  methods  of  road-making  with  this  material  are 
broadly  identical  in  America  and  Great  Britain,  slight 
modifications  being  made  to  meet  local  conditions.  If  the 
roadway  has  to  carry  motor-bus  and  similar  heavy  traffic, 
a  firm,  solid,  and  stable  foundation  is  essential,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  ordinary  water-bound  macadam  highway.  This 
foundation  consists  of  a  layer  of  what  is  called  "  asphaltic 
concrete,"  3^  inches  in  thickness.  The  base  is  made  of 
silica  of  fine  grade,  Portland  cement,  and  granite,  or  clinker 
from  the  dust  destructor,  broken  up  so  that  the  largest 
pieces  will  pass  through  a  mesh  of  i|  inches.  The  materials 
are  crushed  and  heated  separately.  They  are  then  weighed 
to  secure  the  requisite  proportions,  and  dumped  into  a  tank 
containing  the  necessary  quantity  of  refined  bitumen  which 
has  been  duly  fluxed.  This  mixer  is  fitted  with  revolving 
shafts  on  which  knives  are  mounted,  and  the  ingredients 
are  speedily  worked  up  and  combined  thoroughly,  9  cubic 
yards  being  produced  in  ninety  seconds.  The  asphaltic 
aggregate,  as  this  mixture  is  called,  is  drawn  off  into  tanks 
mounted  upon  motor-vehicles,  for  conveyance  to  the  spot 
where  it  is  to  be  laid.  Motor- traction  has  transformed  this 
industry,  because  now  it  is  possible  to  supply  aggregate 
over  a  radius  of  thirty-six  miles  from  a  central  point,  the 
aggregate  retaining  its  heat  for  eight  to  twelve  hours  after 
mixing.  Upon  reaching  the  site  the  mixture  is  laid,  while 
in  the  heated  condition,  to  the  desired  thickness,  and  con- 
solidated thoroughly  by  road  rolling. 

The  durability  and  stability  of  the  wearing  surface 
depends  essentially  upon  this  foundation.  If  this  be  of 
insufficient  thickness,  and  is  consolidated  indifferently,  the 
road  surface  will  develop  holes  and  ridges,  instead  of  main- 
taining the  smooth,  level  face  which  is  required.  The 
wearing  surface  consists  of  a  layer  of  fluxed  epure"  bitumen, 
i£  inches  in  thickness,  likewise  applied  in  a  heated  condi- 
tion, and  thoroughly  compressed  by  road  rolling.  This 


OIL  AS  A  ROAD-MAKING  MATERIAL  159 

layer  acts  as  a  kind  of  cushion,  giving  slightly,  like  india- 
rubber,  when  heavy  vehicles  pass  over  it,  and  returning  to 
its  original  contour  after  the  weight  has  been  released.  This 
resiliency,  prevailing  under  all  conditions  of  weather  and 
temperature,  constitutes  the  salient  characteristic  of  this 
paving  medium.  It  insures  the  reduction  of  wear  and  tear 
of  the  supporting  surface  to  the  minimum.  For  roadways 
carrying  light  traffic  the  substantial  foundation  of  asphaltic 
concrete  may  be  eliminated,  a  top  layer  of  asphalt  macadam, 
varying  from  i£  to  2  inches  in  thickness,  being  laid  upon 
the  existing  water-bound  macadam  surface;  while  in  the 
case  of  thoroughfares  subject  to  medium  traffic,  the  thick- 
ness of  this  surfacing  asphalt  macadam,  varying  from  2^  to 
3  inches,  either  may  be  laid  directly  upon  the  existing 
macadam,  or,  if  the  conditions  do  not  permit  of  direct 
application,  the  surplus  material  of  the  latter  is  removed, 
the  base  compressed  by  heavy  rolling,  and  the  top  layer 
then  applied. 

The  consumption  of  Trinidad  lake  asphalt  for  road- 
making  purposes,  both  in  the  United  Kingdom  and  the 
United  States,  undoubtedly  would  have  attained  far  greater 
proportions  but  for  the  appearance  of  a  competitor,  which 
promises  to  become  formidable  in  character.  The  opening 
up  of  the  Californian,  Texan,  and  Mexican  oil-fields,  the 
petroleum  of  which  is  of  an  asphaltic  base,  has  released  vast 
quantities  of  bitumen.  The  possibility  of  utilizing  this  oil 
residue  for  paving  purposes  naturally  occurred  to  the  refiners, 
but  the  chemical  analysis  revealed  a  marked  diversion  from 
the  constitution  of  the  natural  asphalt,  while  in  addition 
there  was  the  absence  of  the  finely  divided  mineral  charac- 
teristic of  the  natural  article.  However,  elaborate  ex- 
periments were  undertaken  with  a  view  to  constructing  by 
artificial  means  a  material  similar  in  every  respect  to  that 
yielded  by  Nature  in  the  Island  of  Trinidad.  Success  was 
achieved,  and  stretches  of  roadways  in  different  parts  of 
the  world  were  laid  therewith  to  ascertain  its  wearing  and 
other  properties  under  actual  conditions.  These  trials  have 
proved  completely  satisfactory,  and  the  road  made  thereof 


160         THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

is  stated  to  be  equal  in  every  respect  to  that  laid  with  the 
natural  asphalt. 

This  development  has  been  of  far-reaching  importance, 
as  narrated  in  another  chapter.  It  has  opened  a  new  field 
for  the  use  of  asphaltic  petroleum.  Road  oil  has  certain 
advantages  over  the  Trinidad  material.  In  its  fluid  form 
it  can  be  used  as  a  dust-layer,  in  which  application  it  is 
effective;  while  the  denser  constituents  may  be  prepared 
in  the  manner  of  the  Trinidad  asphalt,  worked  into  a  con- 
crete, and  laid  in  a  similar  way.  The  consumption  of  road 
oil  has  already  attained  huge  proportions.  In  California 
and  Texas  the  highroads  are  dressed  with  the  oil ;  while  the 
Southern  Pacific  Railway  uses  it  to  lay  the  dust  upon  the 
whole  2,600  miles  of  its  system  between  San  Francisco  and 
New  Orleans,  a  special  appliance  for  spraying  oil  upon  the 
track  having  been  devised.  In  these  two  States  the  solid 
residue  is  worked  up  into  the  asphaltic  concrete,  and  the 
majority  of  the  roads  in  the  leading  cities  and  towns  are 
paved  therewith.  In  fact,  it  was  the  coming  of  the  petro- 
leum asphalt,  which  is  produced  in  vast  quantities  by  the 
Calif ornian  refineries,  that  put  an  end  to  the  working  of 
the  natural  asphalt  deposits  which  exist  in  California,  the 
former  being  found  to  be  the  cheaper  medium.  Petroleum 
asphalt  is  also  making  great  headway  in  the  British  Isles, 
the  consumption  thereof  in  this  one  field  advancing  with 
remarkable  strides. 

During  the  past  two  or  three  years  an  interesting  develop- 
ment in  connection  with  this  system  of  road  construction 
has  taken  place.  Formerly  a  contract  for  asphalt  road 
construction  was  handed  lock,  stock,  and  barrel  to  a  con- 
cern specializing  in  this  work,  but  now  another  method  is 
coming  into  vogue.  The  local  authorities  contract  only 
for  the  supply  of  the  aggregate  in  a  heated  condition.  This 
is  laid  and  the  road  completed  by  local  labour  under  the 
direct  supervision  of  the  borough  or  municipal  engineer. 
This  procedure  is  rendered  feasible  by  the  design  of  a  port- 
able plant,  comprising  crushers  for  reducing  the  materials 
to  the  required  size,  furnace  for  heating  the  ingredients, 


OIL  AS  A  ROAD-MAKING  MATERIAL  161 

and  a  mixer.  This  installation  can  be  set  up  easily  and 
speedily  at  any  desired  point,  and  the  material  can  be 
delivered  to  the  local  road-building  authority  ready  for 
application. 

The  simplicity  and  straightforward  character  of  the  pro- 
cess has  brought  about  a  further  development  in  this  con- 
nection. Municipalities  and  civic  authorities  having  a  con- 
siderable mileage  of  roads  under  their  control,  have  decided 
to  carry  out  the  whole  work  themselves  by  direct  labour. 
A  certain  initial  outlay  is  incurred  in  the  acquisition  of  the 
necessary  plant,  but  this  is  not  a  serious  item,  and  its  cost 
is  recouped  within  a  short  time.  Subsequently  there  is  only 
one  expense — the  purchase  of  the  necessary  asphalt  ready 
for  mixing.  Consequently,  in  this  manner,  practically  the 
whole  of  the  money  expended  upon  road-paving  benefits 
the  labouring  element  of  the  district  or  town. 

This  last-named  tendency  deserves  to  be  fostered,  and 
should  be  extended.  Every  town  and  city  should  possess 
its  asphalt  concrete-mixing  plant.  At  the  present  moment 
nearly  every  municipality  possesses  its  dust  destructor,  and 
the  asphaltic  concrete-preparing  installation  can  be  com- 
bined with  it .  Every  effort  is  made  to  render  the  destruction 
of  garbage  as  remunerative  as  possible,  by  the  utilization  of 
the  heat  produced  to  generate  electricity,  but  economy  is 
far  from  being  realized.  The  residue  from  the  destructor, 
the  clinker  and  ash,  represent  an  unmarketable  product. 
It  accumulates  rapidly,  and  as  a  rule  is  given  away,  but 
even  then  it  is  wellnigh  impossible  to  avoid  the  formation 
of  huge  unsightly  dumps,  especially  in  the  case  of  large  towns 
and  densely  populated  boroughs. 

By  acquiring  and  adopting  the  asphaltic  concrete  road- 
making  plant  this  vexatious  problem  is  solved  completely 
and  profitably.  Dust  destructor  clinker  and  ash  forms  an 
excellent  ingredient  for  asphalt  aggregate.  Asphalt  is 
generally  conceded  to  be  superior  to  any  other  form  of  road- 
paving  material.  At  the  moment  cities  and  towns  expend 
large  sums  annually  in  the  purchase  of  metal  for  the  water- 
bound  macadam  roads,  and  wooden  blocks.  By  embarking 

IX 


162         THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

upon  a  comprehensive  road  reconstruction  policy,  using  the 
dust  destructor  clinker,  this  expense  could  be  saved.  It 
would  be  possible  to  dispose  of  the  residue  effectively  and 
profitably,  and  in  the  long-run  the  community  would  be 
able  to  show  a  pronounced  saving  in  its  road-paving  opera- 
tions. Even  the  pavements  could  be  laid  with  it,  the  paving 
either  being  made  of  clinker  and  asphalt  compressed  into 
large  slabs,  or  made  up  continuously  in  the  manner  of  the 
road. 

In  making  the  asphalt  road  there  is  no  great  demand  upon 
skill  and  knowledge.  The  process  for  the  most  part  is 
automatic — that  is,  so  far  as  the  preparation  of  the  aggre- 
gate is  concerned.  The  great  advantage  accruing  from  the 
acquisition  and  operation  of  a  system  as  described  would 
enable  about  90  per  cent,  of  the  money  voted  for  road- 
making  and  maintenance  purposes  to  be  distributed  among 
the  people  contributing  to  the  expenditure  in  the  form  of 
rates.  In  other  words,  road-making  could  be  converted 
into  a  local  industry,  which  is  far  from  being  the  case  at 
present.  The  heat-retaining  qualities  of  the  aggregate, 
motor  traction,  and  ability  to  serve  a  radius  of  thirty  miles 
or  so  from  a  central  point,  are  overwhelming  factors  in 
favour  of  the  practice.  The  time  is  not  far  distant  when  a 
road-making  plant  will  be  considered  as  an  indispensable 
adjunct  to  the  local  dust  destructor. 

Some  enterprising  and  far-seeing  British  municipalities 
have  realized  the  significance  of  this  practice,  and  have  such 
installations  in  operation.  The  innovation  is  proving  more 
than  self-supporting.  The  roads  of  the  district,  built  upon 
this  principle,  have  achieved  an  excellent  reputation,  and  a 
waste  product  has  been  turned  to  profitable  account.  High- 
ways built  in  accordance  with  this  principle  are  cheap  to 
maintain,  noiseless,  easy  to  clean,  dustless,  and  prevent 
that  bugbear  of  motor  traction,  side-slipping.  All  things 
considered,  it  is  evident  that  the  busy  thoroughfare  of  the 
future  will  be  a  combination  of  the  worthless  refuse  clinker 
and  asphalt,  either  from  the  natural  pitch  lake  in  Trinidad, 
or  from  the  petroleum  refineries. 


CHAPTER  XIII 
OIL  FIRES  AND  THEIR  EXTINCTION 

WHILE  a  "  strike  of  oil  "  is  almost  certain  to  introduce 
Fortune  in  her  most  attractive  garb,  the  fickle  goddess  does 
not  leave  the  forces  of  undoing  at  a  distance.  Wealth  and 
ruin  generally  stalk  hand-in-hand  through  the  oil -field.  If 
one  is  able  to  keep  destruction  and  devastation  away,  the 
stream  of  oil  flowing  to  the  refinery  and  tanks  builds  a  sub- 
stantial pile  of  gold  in  the  bank.  But  if  fate  should  be  un- 
kind, then  Good  Luck  vanishes  sky-high  in  a  column  of 
dense,  black,  suffocating  smoke  and  lurid  belching  flame. 

The  oil  producer  and  refiner  are  haunted  night  and  day 
by  one  remorseless  enemy.  This  is  fire.  It  may  be  a  flash 
of  lightning,  a  match  carelessly  thrown  to  the  ground,  a 
spark  generated  by  a  flying  piece  of  rock  striking  a  metallic 
part  of  the  derrick,  or  some  other  untoward  incident  which 
reveals  the  lurking  fiend.  In  any  event  the  result  is  in- 
variably the  same.  The  gas  hovering  above  the  well,  or 
enveloping  the  top  of  the  tank,  is  fired,  and  then  there  is  a 
blaze  beside  which  a  building  in  flames  is  a  match-flicker. 

The  losses  incurred  by  the  oil  industry  during  the  course 
of  the  year  amount  to  millions  sterling.  In  the  United 
States  alone  they  are  estimated  at  1,500,000  barrels  a  year. 
At  50  cents  a  barrel,  which  is  a  reasonable  quotation,  this 
represents  $750,000,  or  £150,000.  Although  the  most 
elaborate  precautions  are  observed,  and  the  rules  and  regula- 
tions concerning  the  handling  of  the  oil  from  the  moment 
it  gushes  from  the  earth  are  strict,  and  despite  the  fact  that 
every  device  that  human  ingenuity  can  contrive  to  extin- 
guish a  fire  in  its  incipient  stage  is  adopted,  the  fiend  seizes 
the  first  opportunity  to  assert  its  destructive  powers. 
163 


164         THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

Human  effort  counts  for  little ;  it  is  puny  when  pitted  against 
such  blind  force. 

The  tank  is  perhaps  the  most  susceptible  to  the  attacks 
of  this  demon,  while  lightning  is  the  most  terrible  foe. 
But  so  far  as  the  tank  is  concerned,  losses  may  generally 
be  mitigated,  because  the  seat  of  the  fire  is  confined  to  the 
surface  of  the  oil,  owing  to  oxygen  in  the  surrounding  air 
being  available  to  support  combustion.  A  tank  fire  as  a 
rule  is  not  regarded  with  very  grave  concern.  If  an  empty 
tank  is  available  in  the  vinicity,  90  per  cent,  or  more  of  the 
oil  will  be  salvaged.  The  pipes  for  charging  and  emptying 
the  tank  enter  the  latter  at  the  bottom.  Consequently,  the 
moment  a  tank  is  fired,  the  pumps  are  set  to  work,  and  the 
oil  is  withdrawn  and  run  into  another  tank.  In  this  way 
very  little  oil  is  left  to  feed  the  flames,  which  die  out  after 
licking  up  every  drop  of  remaining  fuel. 

Of  course,  if  no  tank  should  be  available  to  receive  the 
oil,  then  the  store  of  crude  is  doomed.  Under  such  circum- 
stances the  situation  assumes  a  far  more  serious  aspect. 
The  intense  heat  of  the  flames  causes  the  steel  walls  of  the 
receptacle  to  curl  like  paper;  the  oil  is  released,  and  runs  in 
all  directions,  forming  gushing  rivers  of  flame.  Then  the 
problem  is  to  restrict  the  movement  of  the  blazing  mass,  so 
that  neighbouring  tanks  and  buildings  may  not  be  engulfed. 
By  the  aid  of  earthen  embankments,  which  serve  to  dam 
back  the  flood,  and  the  liberal  use  of  steam  jets,  this  end 
may  be  accomplished  as  a  rule,  though  at  the  expenditure 
of  enormous  energy  and  activity. 

It  is  the  gushing  oil-well  which  precipitates  such  a  feeling 
of  intense  dismay.  The  spouting  column  of  combustible 
liquid  is  converted  into  a  fountain  of  flame.  The  condi- 
tions favour  a  devastating  conflagration.  The  oil,  spread- 
ing out  in  the  form  of  a  large  plume,  becomes  finely  divided, 
and  an  abundance  of  air  being  immediately  available  to 
support  combustion,  and  the  rushing  oil  maintaining  this 
plume,  the  fire  is  at  liberty  to  rage  freely.  The  lower  part 
of  the  column  gives  slight  evidence  of  being  aglow,  since 
it  is  somewhat  similar  to  a  Bunsen  burner.  The  stream  of 


OIL  FIRES  AND  THEIR  EXTINCTION  165 

oil,  perhaps  8  or  more  inches  in  thickness,  is  homogeneous. 
The  air  cannot  penetrate  the  mass,  so  combustion  is  rendered 
impossible,  although  the  main  stream  is  surrounded  by  a  ring 
of  blue  flame  where  the  air  comes  into  contact  with  the  sur- 
face of  the  oil  column.  But  at  30  feet  or  more  above  the 
mouth  of  the  well  the  flame  asserts  itself,  and  grows  in  in- 
tensity and  volume  thence  to  the  uttermost  edges  of  the 
plume. 

An  oil  fire  is  a  terrifying  spectacle,  whether  it  be  a  tank 
or  a  gusher.  In  the  case  of  a  tank,  the  flame,  being  con- 
fined to  the  surface  of  the  oil,  does  not  reveal  its  actual 
extent  or  ferocity.  Dense  clouds  of  jet-black  suffocating 
smoke  are  emitted,  and  completely  envelop  the  tank,  except 
perhaps  on  the  windward  side.  Consequently  one  is  unable 
to  approach  the  conflagration.  The  smoke  drifts  away  with 
the  wind,  and  often  will  envelop  an  area  of  fifty  to  a  hundred 
square  miles.  The  hot  gases  lift  the  unconsumed  carbon 
to  a  high  altitude,  where  they  spread  fan-wise,  and  will 
often  form  a  trail  twenty  miles  in  length,  imparting  an 
appearance  strongly  reminiscent  of  a  sulphurous  London 
fog.  In  one  of  the  big  fires  at  Bayonne  some  years  ago 
the  smoke-cloud  was  observed  thirty  miles  at  sea,  and  was 
dispersed  finally  by  a  heavy  rainstorm,  which  precipitated 
the  unconsumed  floating  particles  of  carbon. 

The  gusher  is  more  awe-inspiring,  because  it  resembles 
nothing  so  much  as  a  volcano  in  eruption.  The  shaft  of 
flame,  opening  fan-wise  as  it  reaches  the  crest,  is  a  living 
mass  of  fire  at  the  plume,  twinkling  vividly  through  the 
dense  ruffs  of  smoke  which  are  emitted.  In  the  Baku 
district  the  damage  wrought  from  fires  has  been  incalculable. 
Millions  of  gallons  of  oil  have  been  lost  as  a  prey  to  the 
flames,  and  it  has  been  no  uncommon  circumstance  for  four 
spouters  to  be  in  full  fiery  blast  at  one  and  the  same  time. 
The  roar  may  be  heard  for  miles,  and  the  flames  often  are 
so  brilliant  in  their  intensity  as  to  illuminate  the  surrounding 
country  as  clearly  as  the  noon-day  sun. 

Fire  is  extremely  difficult  to  avoid  on  a  new  oil-field. 
The  lack  of  facilities  for  storing  an  unexpected  yield  con- 


166         THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

tributes  to  this  state  of  affairs.  In  the  leading  oil-producing 
districts  the  men  are  fully  aware  of  the  risks  from  fire,  and 
accordingly  outbreaks  are  comparatively  few  and  far  be- 
tween ;  but  in  new  territories  prudence  is  thrown  to  the  four 
winds  in  the  mad  haste  to  get  rich  quickly.  This  was  par- 
ticularly the  case  in  connection  with  the  opening  of  the 
Texan  oil-fields.  The  Texas  "  strikes  "  created  wild  rushes. 
On  the  Spindletop  Field,  which  is  somewhat  limited  in  area, 
220  derricks  arose  in  a  brief  span  of  time,  and  were  planted 
so  closely  together  that  they  almost  touched  one  another. 
Trenches  were  dug  hurriedly  to  carry  the  oil  to  huge  open- 
air  reservoirs,  formed  by  hastily  contrived  dykes,  and  pipes 
were  laid  to  supplement  the  conduct  of  the  petroleum  to 
the  storage  facilities.  But  it  was  a  striking  illustration  of 
the  penalty  attending  a  frenzied  boom.  The  banks  of  the 
reservoirs  leaked ;  the  pipe  lines  were  so  imperfectly  jointed 
that  bursts  were  frequent ;  while  even  the  open  sluices  be- 
came blocked  by  earth  falls.  Oil  ran  wild;  the  ground  was 
so  saturated  that  it  could  not  absorb  another  drop,  pools  and 
puddles  lying  everywhere. 

The  Texan  oil-boomers  learned  a  terrible  tesson.  One 
night  a  workman  had  occasion  to  inspect  a  settling  tank. 
A  lamp  guided  him,  but  the  door  of  the  lantern  was  left  un- 
fastened. The  gas  in  the  tank  came  into  contact  with  the 
flame.  There  was  a  terrific  explosion,  and  a  moment  later 
the  interior  of  the  tank  was  a  seething  furnace.  The  force 
of  the  detonation  hurled  burning  oil  in  all  directions,  some 
falling  upon  adjacent  derricks,  which,  being  similarly  oil- 
soddened,  afforded  excellent  meat  for  the  flames.  A  4,000- 
barrel  tank  caught  some  of  the  flying  oil,  and  within  six 
hours  was  nothing  but  a  collapsed  mass  of  twisted  metal. 
For  two  weeks  the  conflagration  raged  fiercely,  and  devas- 
tated the  most  valuable  part  of  the  field,  extending  over 
ten  acres. 

The  oil  seekers,  ignorant  of  the  most  effective  methods  of 
combating  oil  fires,  deluged  the  burning  area  with  water, 
which  only  made  matters  worse,  because  the  flames  were 
not  quenched,  but  were  forced  farther  and  farther  out- 


OIL  FIRES  AND  THEIR  EXTINCTION  167 

wards  on  all  sides,  being  picked  up  and  floated  while  burning 
fiercely  upon  the  rivulets  of  water.  The  "  ten-acre  "  fire, 
as  it  was  called,  practically  burned  itself  out,  and  virtually 
devastated  the  district,  ruining  fully  one-half  of  those  who 
had  tempted,  and  had  almost  wooed,  Fortune.  The  out- 
break was  mastered  only  by  the  erection  of  an  earthen  wall 
around  the  doomed  area,  which  successfully  prevented  the 
escape  of  the  oil . 

The  Spindletop  Field  was  within  an  ace  of  being  wiped 
out  when  one  of  the  early  gushers  came  into  being.  Had  it 
not  been  for  the  presence  of  mind  of  the  spectators,  disaster, 
swift  and  sudden,  would  have  overwhelmed  it.  Some  oil 
lying  on  the  ground  became  ignited.  There  was  a  roar ;  but 
instead  of  the  spectators  fleeing  in  terror,  they  rushed  for- 
ward, hastily  divesting  themselves  of  their  coats,  and 
smothering  the  flames  before  they  had  secured  a  good  hold. 
In  the  Hogg  Swayne  Field  such  good  fortune  did  not  ensue. 
The  oil  caught  fire  and  leaped  from  derrick  to  derrick  in  a 
startling  manner.  Drillers  hastily  abandoned  their  wells; 
the  pumping  staffs  stampeded  in  a  wild  melee.  Within  a 
short  time  numerous  derricks  were  cracking  torches.  This 
conflagration  swept  the  field  with  such  startling  suddenness 
that  twenty  men,  trapped  while  at  their  work,  fell  victims 
to  its  ravages. 

Water  in  reality  is  the  most  dangerous  agent  with  which 
to  combat  an  oil-fire,  unless  the  outbreak  is  small.  The  oil 
floats  upon  the  water,  and  may  easily  be  carried  out  of 
bounds.  Upon  an  organized  oil-field  buckets  of  sand  are 
distributed  liberally  and  within  easy  reach.  Sand  is  not 
only  cheap,  but  also  an  effective  means  of  extinguishing  an 
incipient  fire.  But  the  only  weapon  which  is  of  any  reliable 
service  is  steam.  The  jets  are  hurled  upon  the  flames  by 
means  of  force  pumps,  and  unless  the  gusher  is  a  big  one 
the  fire  is  smothered.  But  the  demands  upon  the  steam- 
raising  plant  at  times  are  exceedingly  heavy. 

In  Louisiana  a  rich  well  was  struck,  and  was  yielding 
about  20,000  barrels  of  petroleum  per  day.  Unfortunately, 
although  care  had  been  observed  in  driving  and  equipping 


168         THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

the  well,  a  breakdown  occurred.  Machinery  was  ordered 
by  telegraph,  and  the  men  strove  might  and  main  to  control 
a  heavy  leak  of  oil.  While  engaged  in  this  duty  a  severe 
thunderstorm  broke  out.  The  superintendent  realized  the 
gravity  of  the  situation.  The  crude  oil  was  exceptionally 
inflammable,  as  it  contained  about  20  per  cent,  of  naphtha. 
The  labourers  wrestling  with  the  leak—"  greasy  men  "  they 
are  termed — were  soaked  from  head  to  foot  with  petro- 
leum. They  were  ordered  to  stand  by  the  leak,  but  at  the 
same  time  to  keep  one  eye  upon  an  adjacent  stream  of  water, 
into  which  they  were  to  plunge  if  a  flash,  as  was  considered 
probable,  struck  the  well.  The  expected  happened :  the  well 
was  fired  by  lightning,  and  the  "  greasy  men  "  had  a  narrow 
escape.  Instantly  the  combat  against  the  outbreak  com- 
menced, since,  owing  to  the  height  to  which  the  flames  were 
leaping,  due  to  the  pressure  of  the  gases  in  the  well,  neigh- 
bouring property  was  seriously  endangered.  Twenty-five 
steam  boilers  were  hurried  out  of  the  nearest  city.  Connec- 
tion was  made  with  an  adjacent  natural  gas  well  to  fire  the 
boilers  and  raise  the  steam.  Within  a  short  time  a  battery 
of  steam  jets  were  directed  against  the  burning  well,  but 
the  conflagration  was  extinguished  only  after  a  desperate 
forty-eight  hours'  struggle. 

As  may  be  supposed,  a  tank  farm  is  an  exceedingly 
dangerous  spot,  owing  to  the  enormous  quantity  of  oil 
under  storage.  A  violent  thunderstorm  is  liable  to  cause  a 
holocaust,  as  well  as  wreak  gigantic  losses.  Consequently, 
elaborate  precautionary  measures  are  provided.  The  general 
method  nowadays  is  to  lay  a  network  of  high-pressure  water 
and  steam  pipes  throughout  the  farm,  with  plugs  for  the 
connection  of  hoses  at  frequent  intervals,  and  in  such  a 
manner  that  the  whole  of  the  extinction  forces  available  may 
be  concentrated  upon  any  one  spot.  Around  the  rims  of 
the  tank,  on  the  outside,  a  sprinkler  is  fitted,  while  other 
similar  pipes  are  installed  within.  If  the  tank  catches  fire, 
the  outside  sprinkler  pours  a  heavy  stream  of  water  down 
the  exterior  of  the  tank,  thereby  keeping  the  metallic  fabric 
cool,  while  simultaneously  high-pressure  steam  spurts  from 


THE   WORLD-FAMED   "  DOS   BOCAS  "   ABLAZE. 

This  fire  was  one  of  the  most  terrible  in  the  history  of  oil.  This  Mexican  gusher  caught  fire 
immediately  after  it  came  into  activity.  The  flames  leaped  to  a  height  of  1,000  to  1,500  feet,  the  glare 
being  visible  200  miles  out  at  sea.  Over  4,000,000  gallons  of  oil  spouted  forth  daily  and  were  consumed. 
The  fire  defied  all  attempts  at  extinction,  and  finally  burned  itself  out. 


To  face  page  168. 


Ky  courtesy  oj  the  Oil  I  fell  Supply  Company. 
A   BLAZIXG   PETROLEUM   WELL. 
The  derrick  has  been  consumed,  and  from  the  mouth  of  the  borehole  to  about  one-half  the 


he'ght  of  the  column  is  a  roaring  mass  of  flan 


To  face  page  169. 


OIL  FIRES  AND  THEIR  EXTINCTION  169 

the  sprinklers  within  the  tank.  In  this  way  a  fire  generally 
can  be  extinguished  with  comparative  ease,  especially  when 
the  oil  is  drawn  from  the  bottom  simultaneously,  and  turned 
into  other  tanks.  Special  emergency  staffs,  trained  in  fire- 
fighting,  are  retained  under  a  capable  chief,  and,  being 
expert  in  this  peculiar  work,  it  is  seldom  that  a  serious  fire 
ever  sweeps  a  farm.  It  may  be  pointed  out  that,  owing  to 
the  unusual  conditions  and  character  of  the  task,  the  oil- 
fields have  developed  a  race  of  what  may  be  described  as 
expert  oil-fire  fighters.  These  men,  from  their  remarkable 
successes,  have  achieved  a  peculiar  reputation,  and  accord- 
ingly are  in  great  request,  not  only  in  the  United  States, 
but  also  throughout  the  whole  American  continent,  in 
waging  war  against  this  relentless  and  devastating  enemy. 

The  most  destructive  and  bafHing  fire  which  has  ever 
overwhelmed  the  American  oil-fields,  at  least  within  recent 
years,  was  the  monster  gusher  in  the  Caddo  fields,  North- 
West  Louisiana.  This  catastrophe  was  remarkable  in 
many  ways.  In  the  first  place  it  was  the  most  prolific 
spouter  of  high-grade  oil  which  had  been  struck  upon  the 
continent,  if  not  in  the  world,  the  naphtha  content  being 
unusually  high;  secondly,  the  flow  was  estimated  at  some 
25,000  barrels  a  day.  It  is  computed  that  during  the  fire, 
which  lasted  twenty-five  days,  oil  to  the  value  of  $1,000,  or 
£200,  per  hour  was  lost.  In  the  second  place,  it  offered 
exceptional  resistance  to  efforts  of  the  fire-fighters,  and  was 
only  overcome  by  dint  of  tremendous  exertion;  while, 
thirdly,  it  is  notable  for  the  ingenious  method  by  which 
success  was  eventually  achieved. 

The  well  was  driven  by  the  rotary  drill  to  a  depth  of 
2,300  feet,  and  on  May  12, 1911,  oil  was  struck  in  such  volume 
that  it  poured  out  of  the  6-inch  borehole  at  the  rate  of 
1,000  barrels  an  hour.  The  oil  was  accompanied  by  a  huge 
flow  of  gas,  which  caused  the  liquid  to  burst  high  into  the 
air.  But  the  rush  was  brought  under  control,  and  the  men 
were  engaged  in  shutting  down  the  flow  by  means  of  a  gate- 
valve.  Suddenly  there  was  a  terrific  explosion.  The  four 
"  greasy  men  "  at  the  valve,  soaked  to  the  skin  with  oil, 


i7o         THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

were  hurled  to  one  side  as  a  sheet  of  flame  spurted  upwards. 
One  man  was  killed  on  the  spot,  and  his  three  comrades  were 
burned  severely.  The  cause  of  the  explosion  was  never 
ascertained,  but  it  is  divined  that  the  gas,  being  heavier 
than  the  air,  spread  along  the  surface  of  the  ground  for  a 
considerable  distance  until  it  came  into  contact  with  a 
lighted  cigarette.  The  force  and  report  of  the  explosion 
was  so  tremendous  that  it  was  felt  and  heard  for  a  con- 
siderable distance  round. 

In  the  course  of  a  few  seconds  the  well  was  burning 
furiously,  and  it  was  realized  that  herculean  efforts  would 
have  to  be  made  to  save  it.  Steam  extinction  was  the 
obvious  remedy,  but  the  character  of  the  fire  revealed  the 
fact  that  a  tremendous  pressure  and  volume  would  have  to 
be  brought  to  bear  upon  the  flames.  No  fewer  than  thirty- 
six  boilers,  each  of  40  horse-power,  were  brought  up  and 
disposed  in  batteries.  The  steam  was  led  through  4-inch 
hoses,  and  the  men  handling  the  nozzles,  approached  as 
closely  as  they  could  to  the  fountain  of  fire  and  smoke. 
The  flames  were  leaping  100  feet  into  the  air,  and  the  smoke, 
being  seen  from  a  distance  of  twenty-five  miles,  attracted 
hundreds  of  people  to  the  scene.  Labourers  were  recruited 
by  the  score.  They  toiled  in  day  and  night  shifts,  firing 
the  boilers  and  performing  numerous  other  duties  at  a  wage 
of  sixty  cents — half  a  crown — per  hour,  because  the  speedy 
extinction  of  the  fire  was  the  primary  consideration  in  order 
to  minimize  the  loss  of  valuable  oil.  Some  of  the  men 
laboured  for  no  less  than  thirty  hours  continuously,  which 
indicates  the  severity  of  the  conflagration,  and  the  arduous 
nature  of  the  work  of  extinction. 

The  situation  was  aggravated  by  the  fact  that  within  a 
short  time  the  well  was  spouting  more  oil  than  the  flames 
could  consume,  the  result  being  that  the  ground  was  being 
deluged  with  streams  of  boiling  petroleum.  The  combined 
output  of  the  thirty-six  boilers  were  concentrated  upon  the 
flames,  the  steam  being  discharged  at  a  pressure  of  120  pounds 
per  square  inch.  Six  days  were  occupied  in  the  preliminary 
preparations,  and  the  spectacle  when  the  steam  was  turned 


OIL  FIRES  AND  THEIR  EXTINCTION  171 

on  was  awe-inspiring  in  the  extreme.  The  noise  was  ear- 
splitting;  the  screech  of  high-pressure  steam  mingled  with 
the  roar  of  burning  and  escaping  gases.  The  heat  was 
terrific  at  the  point  where  the  man  stood  directing  the  steam 
jets — so  hot,  in  fact,  that  special  pumps  had  to  be  set  going 
to  keep  the  firemen  drenched  with  cold  water.  The  jets 
were  poured  from  all  sides,  and  for  ten  minutes  the  battle 
raged.  The  flames  grew  whiter  and  whiter,  and  the  firemen, 
stimulated  by  these  symptoms,  redoubled  their  efforts,  be- 
cause victory  appeared  in  sight.  But  just  as  one  and  all 
thought  that  the  fire  was  dying  down,  the  flames  gave  a 
terrifying  leap  upwards,  and  once  more  became  masters  of 
the  situation,  compelling  the  men  to  withdraw,  utterly 
defeated. 

The  firemen  voiced  the  opinion  that  they  had  been  beaten 
in  the  initial  effort  because  the  lines  of  hose  were  laid  upon 
the  ground,  whereas  they  should  have  been  elevated,  so  as 
to  drive  the  jets  of  steam  into  the  flames  at  the  point  of 
maximum  intensity  and  combustion.  Trestles,  colloquially 
termed  "  horses,"  were  hurriedly  contrived,  as  well  as  a 
number  of  screens,  which  the  men  pushed  before  them  in 
their  advance  towards  the  flames  to  secure  protection  from 
the  intense  heat.  By  elevating  the  jets  the  steam  was  con- 
centrated above  the  valve  mouth,  from  which  the  oil  and 
gas  were  pouring.  Another  titanic  struggle  raged  for  ten 
minutes,  but  the  flames  declined  to  be  extinguished.  They 
died  down  as  if  retreating,  and  then  burst  forth  with  re- 
doubled fury.  The  firemen,  caught  unawares,  scampered 
to  a  safe  distance  before  the  rush  of  boiling  oil. 

Water  was  now  brought  into  service  with  the  idea  of 
drowning  the  boiling  oil  and  smothering  the  flames,  but  the 
effect  was  negligible.  To  make  matters  worse,  the  metallic 
portions  of  the  derrick  had  collapsed  over  the  valve,  shielding 
the  latter  from  the  action  of  the  steam  jets.  This  de~bris 
had  to  be  removed.  But  how  ?  In  the  neighbouring  city 
there  was  an  old  muzzle-loading  cannon  which  fired  a 
4-inch  ball  shot.  This  was  brought  up,  and  nine  rounds 
were  discharged  at  the  debris,  the  men  hoping  that  the 


i72         THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

bombardment  not  only  would  drive  the  latter  to  one  side, 
but  would  knock  the  gate-valve  off  the  casing.  The 
artillery  fire  did  more  harm  than  good.  The  valve  resisted 
the  onslaught,  but  the  casing  immediately  below  was  punc- 
tured in  two  or  three  places,  and  the  oil,  having  additional 
outlets,  caused  the  fire  to  rage  more  furiously  than  ever. 

Steam  and  water  proving  of  no  avail,  a  bold  expedient 
was  recommended.  This  was  to  drive  a  ditch  and  tunnel 
at  an  angle  towards  the  well,  uncover  the  casing  some  dis- 
tance below  the  valve,  tap  the  flow,  and  flood  the  well  with 
water,  thereby  depriving  the  flames  of  fuel.  At  a  point 
208  feet  from  the  well  the  tunnel  was  started.  It  was  4  feet 
wide  by  7  feet  high,  and  was  driven  by  pick  and  shovel 
through  the  hard  clay  at  a  slight  angle  dipping  towards  the 
well,  so  as  to  pick  up  the  casing  about  n  feet  below  the  valve. 
Trees  were  felled  and  cut  up  to  form  props  and  roofing. 
But  the  work  of  the  tunnellers  was  exceedingly  arduous, 
especially  upon  the  last  50  feet.  The  heat  was  so  intense 
that  the  men  had  to  be  relieved  every  thirty  minutes .  The 
gallery  was  filled  with  turpentine  fumes,  given  off  by  the 
green  timber  under  the  blistering  and  roasting  action  of 
the  flames. 

Despite  the  intensely  difficult  conditions,  the  well  casing 
was  reached  and  laid  bare.  Here  what  is  known  as  a 
saddle,  or  split-clamp,  was  placed  around  the  casing  and 
made  oil-tight.  From  this  a  6-inch  pipe  was  carried  for 
208  feet  through  the  tunnel.  The  outer  extremity  of  the 
pipe  was  fitted  with  a  stuffing-box,  while  an  inner  length  of 
piping,  4  inches  in  diameter  and  210  feet  in  length,  was 
inserted.  This  inner  pipe  was  equipped  with  an  acorn 
cutting  tool,  which  was  brought  to  bear  upon  the  surface 
of  the  well-casing.  On  the  outer  end  of  this  4-inch  pipe  a 
sprocket  was  mounted,  and  this  was  connected  by  endless 
chain  gearing  to  the  driving  gear  of  a  drilling  engine.  In 
this  way  it  was  rendered  possible  to  rotate  the  2io-feet 
length  of  4-inch  pipe  with  its  cutter,  and  thus  drill  through 
the  well-casing. 

The  casing  comprised  three  pipes.    The  outer  casing  was 


OIL  FIRES  AND  THEIR  EXTINCTION  173 

10  inches,  the  intermediate  8  inches,  and  the  main  casing, 
through  which  the  oil  flowed,  6  inches  in  diameter.  The 
three  pipes  were  drilled  successfully,  and  the  oil-flow,  being 
tapped,  was  diverted  through  the  horizontal  lengths  of 
4-  and  6-inch  pipe,  the  total  yield  being  19,500  barrels  per 
twenty-four  hours.  The  oil  flow  being  weakened  in  this 
manner,  steam  extinction  was  once  more  attempted,  but 
too  much  oil  was  flowing  vertically  past  the  acorn  cutter  to 
enable  the  desired  end  to  be  achieved. 

It  was  now  decided  to  flood  the  well,  thereby  rendering 
it  unproductive  for  the  time  being.  Pumps  were  connected 
to  the  end  of  the  4-inch  horizontal  pipe,  and  water  was 
forced  into  the  well  under  a  pressure  of  1,200  pounds  per 
square  inch.  As  the  oil  and  gas  were  issuing  at  a  pressure 
of  900  pounds  per  square  inch,  the  oil-flow  was  overcome. 
Considerable  quantities  of  the  water  passed  the  acorn  cutter, 
and  flew  out  of  the  mouth  of  the  well,  and  helped  to  deaden 
the  flames.  In  order  that  the  whole  of  the  water  should 
enter  the  borehole  and  drive  the  oil  downwards,  small  balls 
of  asbestos  were  made,  placed  in  a  trap,  and  were  pumped 
into  the  well.  These  balls  filled  the  space  around  the  acorn 
cutter,  so  that  neither  water  nor  oil  could  escape  upwards. 
After  the  vent  had  been  choked  in  this  way,  the  fire  was 
extinguished  in  eighteen  minutes.  Muddy  water  then  was 
pumped  down  the  well,  thereby  killing  it  for  the  time  being. 
The  debris  at  the  surface  was  cleared  away,  new  lengths  of 
pipe  casing  were  sunk  into  position  and  connected  to  the 
existing  pipes  below  the  acorn-cutter,  and  the  well  rendered 
ready  for  reawakening.  A  section  of  pipe  was  run  to  the 
bottom  of  the  borehole  to  agitate  the  oil  and  to  set  it 
flowing — "  bailing  in,"  as  it  is  called.  The  flow  now  was 
under  absolute  control,  but  a  test  showed  that  it  was  coming 
out  at  the  rate  of  40,000  barrels  per  day.  Owing  to  lack 
of  piping  facilities,  the  well  was  shut  down  to  10,000  barrels 
per  day  until  thirty-five  miles  of  trunk  8-inch  pipe  line  had 
been  laid  and  connected  up . 

This  ingenious  method  of  combating  the  flames,  though 
somewhat  expensive,  was  completely  successful.  From  the 


174         THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

moment  the  tunnel  was  commenced  only  fourteen  days 
elapsed  before  the  fire  was  quenched.  But  for  twenty-five 
days  the  fire  roared  continuously,  during  which  time  it  is 
estimated  that  over  30,000,000  gallons  of  high-grade 
petroleum,  representing  a  value  of  over  $700,000  (£140,000) 
disappeared  in  smoke,  while  the  cost  of  extinguishing  the 
fire  was  enormous. 

But  the  most  gigantic  and  the  most  terrible  fire  in  the 
history  of  the  oil  industry  was  that  which  swept  out  of 
existence  the  first  and  biggest  strike  made  in  Mexico.  The 
terrible  fires  which  have  ravaged  the  United  States  oil-fields 
sink  into  insignificance  in  comparison  with  it,  while  it  even 
eclipsed  the  most  terrifying  outbreaks  which  ever  have  been 
encountered  in  the  Russian  oil-fields,  famous  though  the 
Baku  oil  conflagrations  have  been.  In  1908  the  Pearson 
interests  were  probing  for  oil  in  Northern  Vera  Cruz.  On 
July  4  the  drillers  were  hard  at  work  with  the  rotary  rig. 
They  had  reached  a  depth  of  1,820  feet,  and  the  going  was 
hard,  since  the  drill  was  biting  its  way  slowly  through  the 
very  hard  marl  formation  which  overlays  the  oil  sands. 
Suddenly  the  resistance  was  observed  to  diminish.  The 
drill  had  entered  the  shale.  Immediately  a  heavy  gas 
pressure  developed.  Something  abnormal  had  been  en- 
countered. The  engineer  supervising  operations  hurriedly 
ordered  the  fires  of  all  the  boilers  to  be  drawn  and  douched, 
while  all  lights  in  the  vicinity  were  extinguished. 

The  commotion  in  the  well  increased  in  violence,  and 
frantic  endeavours  were  made  to  master  the  situation.  But 
the  pressure  of  the  pent-up  gases,  profiting  from  the  vent 
offered,  increased  so  rapidly  that  the  drillers  were  frustrated. 
The  wire-wrapped  hose  connecting  the  slush  pumps  with  the 
drill-stem  were  burst  by  the  gas.  The  oil  commenced  to 
flow,  gathering  in  volume  and  velocity  every  succeeding 
second.  "  Dos  Bocas,"  as  the  well  was  named,  came  to  life 
with  a  vengeance.  In  the  course  of  a  few  minutes  oil  was 
pouring  out  at  the  rate  of  350  gallons  per  minute.  Stren- 
uous efforts  were  made  to  extricate  the  4-inch  pipe,  but  in 
vain.  The  flow  of  oil  increasing  in  volume,  the  drillers  were 


OIL  FIRES  AND  THEIR  EXTINCTION  175 

driven  from  the  scene.  In  twenty  minutes  after  the  drill 
had  bitten  into  the  shale,  the  well  was  absolutely  out  of  con- 
trol. A  river  of  oil,  8  inches  in  diameter,  poured  from  the 
ground  with  such  force  as  to  hide  the  derrick  from  view. 

It  was  evident  that  an  unusual  big  strike  had  been 
made.  The  subterranean  pressure  was  so  enormous  that 
the  borehole  was  an  inadequate  vent.  The  ground  around 
the  well  heaved,  and  fell  as  if  riven  by  an  earthquake. 
Fissures  opened  up  from  which  gas  and  oil  spurted  in  dense 
clouds.  The  heavy  and  substantial  drill-pipe  made  a 
hurried  exit,  being  broken  up  and  hurled  from  the  well  in 
long  lengths,  some  of  which  were  hurled  150  feet  into  the 
air.  The  derrick  was  smashed  to  fragments.  As  if  this 
devastation  was  not  sufficient,  the  8-inch  well  casing,  which 
was  anchored  at  the  top,  but  not  at  the  bottom,  collapsed 
under  the  extremely  violent  agitation,  and,  falling  into  the 
hole,  told  the  engineer  only  too  plainly  that  no  hopes  of 
regaining  control  of  the  flow  remained. 

Meanwhile  the  area  of  the  fissures  had  extended  rapidly, 
until  at  last  they  broke  up  the  ground  beneath  the  boilers. 
Here  disaster  was  completed.  Although  the  ashes  from  the 
fires  had  been  drenched  with  water,  evidently  a  few  embers 
remained  glowing,  because  the  gas  and  oil  suddenly  burst 
into  flame.  Instantly  the  most  impressive  and  terrifying 
sight  which  ever  had  been  witnessed  upon  an  oil-field  burst 
into  activity.  The  column  of  oil,  shooting  high  into  the  air, 
became  ignited,  while  the  huge  crowning  plume  was  con- 
verted into  a  living  mass  of  flame  and  smoke.  Nine  days 
after  Dos  Bocas  revealed  its  strength  the  flames  were  leaping 
to  a  height  of  1,000  and  1,500  feet,  and  at  the  broadest 
part  the  fan  of  fire  was  90  feet  wide. 

The  unusual  spectacle  threw  the  natives  residing  in  the 
vicinity  into  a  state  of  abject  terror.  The  roar  and  cracking 
was  so  deafening  that  it  could  be  heard  for  miles,  while  at 
night  the  fountain  of  flame  was  plainly  visible  in  Tampico, 
and  was  seen  from  200  miles  out  at  sea.  In  fact,  navigators 
often  mistook  the  light  for  that  thrown  from  the  Tampico 
lighthouse,  which  appeared  to  be  a  dim  glim  in  comparison. 


176         THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

A  newspaper  could  be  read  in  the  open  by  the  glare  of  the 
fire  at  a  distance  of  twenty  miles. 

The  fire  raged  so  furiously,  and  the  heat  was  so  intense, 
that  approach  within  300  feet  of  the  borehole  was  absolutely 
impossible.  The  precise  yield  of  the  well  never  was  known 
accurately,  but  competent  authorities  estimated  that  it 
exceeded  100,000  barrels — over  4,000,000  gallons — per 
twenty-four  hours.  The  news  of  the  huge  fire  spread 
rapidly,  and  hundreds  of  the  curious  hurried  to  the  spot. 
Expert  fire-fighters,  who  had  vanquished  conflagrations 
among  the  fields  of  the  United  States,  hastened  to  the  well 
to  offer  assistance,  but  the  outlook,  exceeding  anything  in 
character  and  immensity  with  which  they  ever  had  been 
confronted,  appalled  them.  The  beaten  experts  watched 
the  spectacle  in  silence ;  but  they  did  not  hesitate  to  venture 
the  candid  opinion  that  human  effort  would  never  cope  with 
the  flames,  and,  as  events  proved,  they  were  correct  in 
their  surmises,  although  from  a  different  reason. 

Notwithstanding  these  discouraging  opinions,  the  engineers 
who  had  supervised  the  drilling-in  of  the  well  did  not  despair 
of  conquering  the  fire.  Steam  extinction  was  out  of  the 
question,  for  the  simple  reason  that  it  was  impossible  to 
venture  sufficiently  near  the  fire  to  produce  the  requisite 
effect.  Another  plan,  therefore,  was  evolved.  This  assumed 
the  form  of  a  huge  drag,  made  from  the  heaviest  steel  plates 
from  a  2,000  barrel  tank.  These  were  riveted  together, 
and  weighted  down  with  30  tons  of  steel  rails.  This  was 
placed  on  one  side  of  the  well,  and  steel  cables  attached 
thereto  were  carried  round  either  side  of  the  well  and  hitched 
to  steam  winches.  The  idea  was  to  haul  this  weighty 
shield  along  the  ground  and  over  the  mouth  of  the  well,  in 
the  hope  that  the  weight  would  be  adequate  to  counteract 
the  pressure  of  the  oil  and  gas,  so  that  the  fire,  unable  to 
derive  further  fuel,  could  be  quenched  by  steam  jets  or  die 
out.  This  scheme  might  have  proved  successful  if  the 
ground  around  the  well  had  not  caved  in,  and,  becoming 
filled  with  running  oil,  formed  a  huge  crater.  Some  idea  of 
the  ferocity  of  this  outbreak,  and  the  titanic  nature  of  the 


OIL  FIRES  AND  THEIR  EXTINCTION          177 

natural  forces  opposed  to  human  endeavour,  may  be 
gathered  from  the  fact  that  the  crater  developed  into  a 
yawning  depression  no  less  than  1,000  feet  across. 

The  drag  idea  being  rendered  futile,  another  scheme  was 
prepared.  This  was  to  drive  a  tunnel  from  a  convenient 
point,  at  an  angle  of  45  degrees,  towards  the  borehole. 
When  the  borehole  was  reached,  a  heavy  charge  of  nitro- 
glycerine was  to  be  laid  and  detonated.  The  resultant 
explosion,  it  was  averred,  would  bring  about  such  a  dis- 
placement of  earth  that  the  well  would  become  choked  with 
debris,  thereby  sealing  the  borehole.  But,  unfortunately 
for  this  ingenious  proposal,  the  ground  caved  in  so  seriously 
around  the  borehole  that  the  possibility  of  driving  the 
tunnel  and  successfully  planting  the  mine  was  rendered 
extremely  remote.  Consequently,  the  idea  of  blowing  in  the 
well  was  abandoned. 

In  the  meantime  the  Mexican  Government  had  given 
assistance  in  a  tangible  form.  An  entire  battalion  of  450  sap- 
pers was  despatched  to  the  field  and  placed  at  the  disposal 
of  the  engineers  to  assist  in  any  scheme  that  might  be 
undertaken  to  quell  the  fire,  and  in  the  arrangements  for 
collecting  the  oil ;  while  other  forces  were  sent  to  maintain 
order,  and  to  reassure  the  terrified  natives  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood .  In  addition  to  belching  oil  and  gas ,  it  is  estimated 
that  over  1,000,000  cubic  yards  of  solid  matter  were  dis- 
charged into  the  air,  so  that  Dos  Bocas  was  not  only  an  oil- 
well,  but  a  devastating  miniature  volcano  as  well. 

The  third  attempt  to  extinguish  the  fire  was  drastic.  It 
was  resolved  to  run  the  risk  of  losing  the  whole  of  the  oil- 
bearing  ground  in  the  vicinity.  The  crater  was  now  a  deep 
depression,  and  the  fissures  made  by  the  escaping  gas,  oil, 
and  caving  ground  were  so  deep  as  to  conceal  a  man  to  the 
armpits.  A  battery  of  powerful  pumps  were  set  up  on  the 
banks  of  the  Tamahua  River,  2,000  feet  distant,  and  they 
were  set  to  work  pumping  water  and  sand  into  the  crater, 
thereby  converting  the  latter  into  a  huge  lake,  the  depth  of 
which  around  the  borehole  would  become  sufficient  to  insure 
an  adequate  water  seal.  This  scheme  was  actually  started, 

12 


i;8         THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

but  shortly  afterwards  Dos  Bocas  died  a  natural  death. 
After  burning  fifty-eight  days,  the  fire  suddenly  collapsed, 
owing  to  the  exhaustion  of  the  oil  and  gas  supply  from  the 
earth,  and  because  the  vent  was  becoming  choked  with 
debris  of  all  descriptions.  But  although  the  fire  was.ex- 
tinguished,  the  well  did  not  lapse  into  complete  quiescence. 
The  flow  of  oil  gave  way  to  one  of  salt  water,  which  was 
estimated  to  average  some  70,000,000  gallons  during  the 
twenty-four  hours,  and  the  temperature  of  which  ranged 
from  160°  to  170°  F.,  so  that  the  oil-well  became  transformed 
virtually  into  a  prolific  thermal  fountain.  But  the  fire  com- 
pletely changed  the  character  of  the  surrounding  country. 
What  had  been  a  stretch  of  undulating  Mexican  bush  is  now 
an  immense  area  of  water,  in  the  centre  of  which  Dos  Bocas 
comes  to  life  spasmodically,  throwing  a  stream  of  salt  water 
and  gas  into  the  air,  recalling  the  geysers  of  New  Zealand 
and  the  Yellowstone  Park. 

While  it  is  estimated  that  over  50,000,000  barrels — 
more  than  2,000,000,000  gallons — of  oil,  representing  over 
£5,000,000,  or  $25,000,000,  in  value,  were  lost  by  this  fire, 
the  disaster  was  not  without  its  compensating  features. 
Hitherto  Mexico  had  been  regarded  as  an  indifferent  oil- 
producing  country.  This  terrifying  conflagration  caused 
the  attention  of  the  whole  oil  world  to  become  riveted  upon 
Mexico.  If  a  well  could  produce  such  a  fire  and  send 
1,000,000  barrels  of  oil  into  smoke  during  the  twenty-four 
hours,  then  the  country  must  be  underlaid  with  incalculable 
deposits  of  oil.  This  was  only  a  logical  conclusion.  An 
oil-rush  set  in,  and  this  received  a  decided  fillip  when  the 
Potrero  de  Llano  No.  4  came  into  life,  with  a  daily  yield 
of  125,000  barrels.  The  flaring  Dos  Bocas  was  the  greatest 
advertisement  the  country  could  have  received.  It  dis- 
comfited the  sceptical,  urged  the  enterprising  to  further 
effort,  and  tangibly  assisted  in  making  Mexico  the  second 
greatest  oil-producing  country  in  the  world,  the  resources 
of  which  have  barely  been  touched. 


CHAPTER  XIV 
OIL  FROM  SHALES:  A  BRITISH  INDUSTRY 

THE  British  Islands,  as  previously  mentioned,  are  deficient 
in  mineral  oil  resources.  At  all  events,  the  deposits  of 
petroleum  which  have  been  discovered  are  so  meagre  as  to 
render  their  commercial  exploitation  unprofitable.  But  oil 
is  found  and  is  reclaimed  from  various  substances — cannel 
coal,  shales,  and  clays.  James  Young,  the  creator  of  the 
paraffin  or  kerosene  industry,  distilled  illuminating  oil  from 
the  cannel  or  boghead  coal,  which  is  found  in  the  vicinity 
of  Bathgate,  Scotland.  The  derivation  of  oil  from  coals 
attained  a  certain  vogue,  being  practised  subsequently  in 
the  United  States,  while  the  process  was  adopted  also  in 
other  parts  of  Great  Britain.  The  price  of  the  raw  material 
at  Bathgate  rose  to  such  a  high  figure,  however,  owing  to  the 
demands  for  the  coal  in  other  fields,  that  the  process  was 
rendered  unremunerative,  especially  when  the  petroleum 
boom  set  in  as  a  result  of  Colonel  Drake's  momentous  dis- 
covery. Consequently  the  Scottish  enterprise  was  aban- 
doned. Distillation  of  oil  from  coal  as  practised  in  other 
parts  of  these  islands  was  continued  for  a  time,  but  with 
rapidly  diminishing  prosperity.  The  unsatisfactory  nature 
of  the  products  obtained  finally  brought  about  their  gradual 
abandonment,  and  accordingly  the  practice  of  rendering  oil 
from  coal  fell  into  disuse,  although  it  has  been  recently 
revived. 

While  Young  was  engaged  upon  his  line  of  research,  a 
French  scientist,  Du  Buisson  by  name,  was  striving  to  distil 
oil  from  shales,  which  abound  in  certain  parts  of  France. 
The  perfection  of  such  a  process  was  of  vital  importance  to 
that  country,  seeing  that  France  likewise  has  been  ignored 
179 


i8o         THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

by  Nature  in  regard  to  the  distribution  of  petroleum.  Du 
Buisson  achieved  a  certain  measure  of  success,  and  a  new 
industry  was  created  for  the  production  of  oils  from  shales. 
It  became  established  in  that  country,  and  is  prosecuted 
upon  a  limited  scale  to  this  day. 

In  the  meantime  a  Scottish  investigator,  Dr.  Robert  Bell, 
had  been  attracted  to  a  similar  line  of  research.  Immense 
quantities  of  shale  exist  in  Scotland,  and  laboratory  experi- 
ments revealed  the  circumstance  that  this  black  slaty  rock 
possessed  an  appreciable  oil  content — sufficient  to  render 
the  extraction  thereof  a  commercial  possibility.  He  con- 
tinued his  researches,  and  finally  elaborated  a  process  which 
he  decided  to  test  upon  a  practical  scale.  In  1859  he 
erected  works  at  Broxburn,  in  close  proximity  to  the  exten- 
sive shale  beds,  and  commenced  operations.  This  was  the 
first  serious  attempt  which  ever  had  been  made  to  win  oil 
from  shales  in  Scotland,  and  it  proved  so  successful  that  in 
1862  the  industry  became  planted  upon  a  firm  basis. 

Dr.  Bell's  discovery  appears  to  have  been  responsible  for 
a  kind  of  shale-oil  boom.  At  all  events,  at  one  time  some 
sixty  firms  were  engaged  in  the  task.  But  the  industry 
has  passed  through  many  vicissitudes  owing  to  the  fierce 
competition  offered  by  petroleum.  The  weaker  companies 
came  to  grief,  but  the  stronger  concerns  successfully  resisted 
all  efforts  to  bring  about  the  extinction  of  the  industry, 
and  to-day  it  is  in  a  highly  flourishing  position. 

The  shale-oil  boom  was  never  comparable  in  magnitude 
or  character  with  those  associated  with  petroleum,  which 
startle  the  world  from  time  to  tune.  Rather  the  industry 
has  grown  slowly  but  surely.  It  has  passed  through  many 
critical  phases,  and  the  periods  of  distress  have  been 
weathered  only  by  the  display  of  inventive  ingenuity  com- 
bined with  shrewd  financial  management.  One  factor  has 
contributed  materially  to  the  survival  of  the  industry. 
The  Scottish  shales  vary  considerably  in  character  and  oil 
content.  The  Broxburn  shales  are  generally  admitted  to 
be  the  richest  in  oil,  and  naturally  proved  to  be  the  most 
profitable  to  work  so  long  as  oil  alone  was  extracted.  But 


OIL  FROM  SHALES:  A  BRITISH  INDUSTRY    181 

as  time  wore  on  important  discoveries  and  radical  improve- 
ments were  effected,  tending  to  reduce  the  cost  of  production. 
One  of  the  most  striking  of  these  developments  was  the 
ability  to  recover  sulphate  of  ammonia  in  paying  quantities 
as  a  by-product.  Every  farmer  knows  that  sulphate  of 
ammonia  is  one  of  the  finest  known  stimulants  for  the  ground, 
and  the  demand  for  this  fertilizer  always  has  exceeded  the 
supply.  The  result  is  that  steady  prices  constantly  prevail, 
and,  what  is  more  vital  to  the  issue,  the  price  always  has 
been  somewhat  high,  having  ranged  for  many  years  past 
about  £13,  or  $65,  per  ton.  The  extraction  of  this  com- 
modity in  paying  quantities  strengthened  the  Scottish 
shale-oil  industry  to  a  pronounced  degree;  in  fact,  it  passed 
from  being  a  mere  by-product  to  a  staple  product,  and  as 
such  it  is  recognized  to-day. 

During  recent  years  the  industry  has  experienced  a 
period  of  prosperity,  and  the  outlook  at  the  moment,  owing 
to  the  greater  reliance  which  the  world  at  large  is  placing 
upon  oil,  is  certainly  attractive.  The  present  era  of  pros- 
perity may  be  said  to  date  from  the  early  eighties,  although 
intermittent  waves  of  depression  have  been  experienced. 
Such  fluctuations  are  inseparable  from  any  ramification  of 
commerce.  But  in  the  shale-oil  industry  these  spasmodic 
crises  have  been  sufficiently  severe  to  reduce  the  number 
of  concerns  engaged  in  the  industry  from  seventy  to  six. 
These  six  companies,  all  of  which  are  in  operation  and 
flourishing  to-day,  are  united  under  the  title  of  the  Scottish 
Mineral  Oil  Association.  This,  however,  is  merely  a  com- 
bination for  consultation  and  mutually  protective  purposes, 
not  a  fusion  of  the  different  companies,  or  a  community  of 
interests.  There  is  no  shale-oil  trust,  because  each  concern 
operates  separately  and  independently.  It  is  only  when 
the  industry  as  a  whole  is  threatened  by  foreign  rivals  that 
unity  is  manifested  to  discuss  ways  and  means  of  meeting 
unfair  competition,  and  it  must  be  admitted  that  in  every 
instance  the  traditional  Scottish  "  canniness  "  has  proved 
equal  to  the  occasion. 

Among  the  six  companies  concerned  in  the  industry  at 


182         THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

the  present  moment,  the  Pumpherston  Oil  Company  occu- 
pies the  foremost  position,  if  only  because  it  was  founded  by 
Mr.  William  Fraser,  who  is  acknowledged  to  be  the  father 
of  the  modern  shale-oil  industry,  and  the  leading  authority 
upon  matters  pertaining  to  the  distillation  of  oil-products 
from  this  mineral .  At  the  same  time  it  must  be  pointed  out 
that  the  company  whose  destinies  he  controls  deals  with 
the  largest  quantity  of  crude  oil  produced  by  any  single 
company  in  the  United  Kingdom.  Mr.  William  Fraser,  in 
collaboration  with  Messrs,  James  Bryson  and  James  Jones, 
perfected  a  means  of  handling  double  the  quantity  of  crude 
shale  distilled  per  day  by  the  evolution  of  a  new  retort. 
Prior  to  1894  the  retort  adopted  could  handle  only  3,300  to 
4,400  pounds  of  shale  daily.  By  means  of  the  new  retort 
devised  by  these  gentlemen  it  was  rendered  possible  to 
deal  with  at  least  8,800  pounds  of  shale  per  day.  At  the 
same  time  they  contrived  ways  of  rendering  the  new  retort 
self-supporting.  In  other  words,  they  perfected  a  system 
of  firing  the  furnaces  with  the  incondensable  gases  given 
off  by  the  shale  during  the  process  of  distillation  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  be  able  to  dispense  with  coal  and  other  fuel. 
The  latter  was  a  notable  achievement.  It  represented  a 
tangible  reduction  in  the  cost  of  production  by  decreasing 
the  fuel  bill,  and  at  the  same  time  enabled  distillation  to  be 
carried  out  with  a  smaller  staff  of  men  than  had  been  possible 
hitherto. 

The  process  of  extracting  oil-products  from  shales  differs 
radically  from  the  production  of  similar  substances  from 
petroleum,  at  least  so  far  as  the  first  stages  of  the  operation 
are  concerned.  The  oil  first  has  to  be  won  from  the  rock. 
The  requisite  installation  comprises  essentially  the  crude- 
oil  plant,  the  sulphate  of  ammonia  plant,  and  the  oil  and 
wax  refineries,  respectively.  When  one  recalls  the  facility 
with  which  petroleum  is  derived  from  the  earth,  the  crude 
drawn  from  the  well  coinciding  with  the  shale  excavated 
from  the  mine,  because  it  represents  the  raw  material,  it 
will  be  realized  that  this  Scottish  industry  is  placed  under  a 
heavy  initial  handicap.  It  is  easier,  simpler,  and  cheaper  to 


OIL  FROM  SHALES:  A  BRITISH  INDUSTRY     183 

pump  a  liquid  from  the  bowels  of  the  earth,  and  to  send  it 
through  pipe-lines  to  the  refineries,  than  to  mine  a  rock 
and  to  convey  it  to  the  stills.  The  fields  where  the  shale  is 
excavated  cover  thousands  of  acres,  and  to  reduce  the  cost 
of  obtaining  the  crude  oil  every  possible  time-  and  labour- 
saving  appliance  has  to  be  introduced,  many  of  these  tools, 
by  the  way,  being  of  special  design.  The  shale,  as  mined, 
is  dumped  into  the  continuously  travelling  buckets  of  an 
aerial  railway,  or  into  the  cars  of  the  hutch  railway,  which 
constitutes  the  standard  system  of  transportation.  Upon 
arrival  at  the  works,  the  shale  is  discharged  into  breaking 
machines,  where  the  lumps  of  rock  are  reduced  to  the  size 
most  convenient  for  effective  and  complete  distillation. 

When  crushed,  the  raw  material  passes  to  hopper-shaped 
hutches,  each  capable  of  receiving  2,200  pounds  of  material, 
which  are  conveyed  to  the  top  of  the  retort  by  means  of  an 
endless  chain,  running  round  an  inclined  scaffold.  In  the 
bottom  of  the  hutch  is  a  sliding  door,  which  is  operated  by  a 
lever.  Directly  this  is  moved  the  door  opens,  the  contents 
are  released,  to  fall  into  a  magazine,  or  hopper,  communi- 
cating directly  with  the  retort.  Each  of  these  feeding- 
hoppers  is  capable  of  containing  8,800  pounds,  or  sufficient 
raw  shale  to  keep  the  retort  going  for  twenty-four  hours. 

In  the  petroleum  industry  the  retorting  stage  is  not 
necessary  because  the  oil  is  ready  for  distillation  as  it  issues 
from  the  earth.  But  in  the  shale  industry  it  is  requisite 
because  the  first  step  is  the  winning  of  the  oil  from  the  rock. 
In  order  to  compel  the  shale  to  give  up  its  oil-content 
destructive  distillation  has  to  be  practised,  so  that  pre- 
liminary retorting  is  peculiar  only  to  this  industry  or  other 
similar  processes  where  oil  is  derived  from  a  rock  or  clay. 

The  retort  which  is  used  at  the  Pumpherston  Works,  and 
which  has  wrought  such  a  change  in  the  industry,  is  of  novel 
and  interesting  design.  It  is  cylindrical  in  shape,  and  built 
vertically  in  ovens  of  four.  The  upper  portion  of  the  retort 
is  of  cast-iron.  The  whole  retort  is  slightly  tapered  in  form, 
measuring  2  feet  and  2  feet  4  inches  in  diameter  at  the  top 
and  base  respectively,  while  it  is  about  20  feet  in  length  over 


184         THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

all.  The  lower  portion  is  built  of  fire-brick.  Heat,  gener- 
ated from  the  gases  thrown  off  by  distillation  and  which 
cannot  be  condensed— when  the  shale  is  of  poor  quality 
and  the  yield  of  this  fuel  is  inadequate,  producer  gas  is  added 
— is  applied  externally,  and  is  caused  to  circulate  round  the 
retort  by  butt-brick,  or  stoppers,  which  act  as  baffles.  The 
heating  gas,  associated  with  a  certain  proportion  of  air, 
enters  the  heating  chamber,  which  envelops  the  whole  retort, 
at  the  base  of  the  brick  section .  Owing  to  the  high  tempera- 
ture of  the  gases  (1,200°  to  1,600°  F.)  maintained  in  this 
section  the  nitrogen  in  the  shale  is  converted  into  ammonia 
by  the  action  of  a  continuous  supply  of  steam,  which  is 
injected  under  slight  pressure  into  the  bottom  of  the  retort. 

The  heating  gases  continuing  their  journey,  and  diminish- 
ing in  temperature  as  they  proceed,  at  last  reach  the  upper, 
or  cast-iron,  portion  of  the  retort.  By  the  time  they  reach 
this  point  the  temperature  thereof  has  dropped  to  about 
400°  F.,  and  the  oil  is  thus  distilled  in  the  cast-iron  section 
of  the  retort  under  a  gentle  heat.  The  oil-gases  and  the 
ammonia-gas  are  drawn  off  together  by  means  of  exhausters, 
and  are  led  into  the  condensers.  These  are  of  the  atmo- 
spheric type,  and  they  condense  the  oil-gases  into  oil,  while 
the  ammonia  dissolves  into  the  condensed  steam,  forming 
ammonia  water,  the  three  substances — oil,  ammonia,  and 
condensed  steam — being  intermingled. 

From  the  condenser  the  mixture  flows  to  what  is  known  as 
a  separator  tank.  Here,  owing  to  the  condensed  oil  and  the 
ammonia  water  having  distinct  specific  gravities,  separation 
occurs,  the  oil  floating  on  the  water.  Consequently  the 
individual  constituents  may  be  drawn  off  into  separate 
receiving  tanks.  The  uncondensed  gases  now  undergo  a 
"  washing  "  in  the  ammonia  scrubbers,  to  recover  any 
remaining  ammonia  associated  with  them,  passing  after- 
wards through  naphtha  scrubbers,  where  the  lighter  gases, 
which  could  not  be  caught  in  the  atmospheric  condensers, 
are  washed  out  with  oil,  and  a  good  quality  of  the  lightest,  or 
naphtha,  oils  are  thereby  recovered.  It  is  from  this  point 
that  the  gases  which  cannot  be  condensed  are  trapped  to  be 


OIL  FROM  SHALES:  A  BRITISH  INDUSTRY      185 

consumed  for  heating  the  retorts.  When  an  average  shale 
is  being  treated,  this  supply  of  incondensable  gases  is 
adequate  for  heating  purposes. 

In  the  Pumpherston  retort  there  is  a  remarkable  arrange- 
ment for  withdrawing  the  spent  shale — that  is,  the  rock 
from  which  the  valuable  properties  have  been  extracted — in 
a  continuous  stream.  It  is  a  mechanical  device,  and  it 
effectively  keeps  the  whole  mass  within  the  retorts  in  con- 
stant movement,  thus  avoiding  fluxing  or  "  dandering  "  of 
the  shale,  with  its  attendant  troubles  and  severe  losses. 
Beneath  each  pair  of  retorts  is  placed  a  cast-iron  hopper, 
fixed  to  girders  supported  by  the  brick  piers  or  columns 
between  each  oven.  A  cast-iron  disc,  or  table,  is  placed  at 
the  top  and  within  each  of  these  hoppers  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  come  immediately  beneath  the  bottom  of  the  retort. 
An  annular  space  is  left  between  the  edge  of  the  table  and 
the  sides  of  the  hopper.  The  mass  of  shale  dumped  into  the 
retort  rests  upon  this  table.  The  latter  is  mounted  upon  a 
central  spindle,  the  upper  end  of  which  projects  above  the 
table,  to  receive  a  curved  arm  which  rests  upon  the  table. 
This  arm  and  spindle  are  revolved,  the  table  remaining 
stationary,  and  in  the  course  of  revolution  the  arm  pushes 
the  shale  towards  and  over  the  edge  of  the  table  to  fall  into 
the  hopper  below. 

The  lower  end  of  the  shaft  carrying  the  curved  arm  is 
fitted  with  a  ratchet  and  lever.  This  is  moved  by  a  bar  or 
rod  of  T-iron,  which  has  a  horizontal  travel,  and  which  is 
driven  by  an  electric  motor  through  gearing.  The  motion 
is  comparatively  slow,  the  arm  making  only  three  complete 
revolutions  per  hour.  In  this  manner  the  discharge  of 
spent  shale  is  controlled  satisfactorily,  while  the  through- 
put thereof  may  be  regulated  as  desired. 

The  spent  shale  which  collects  in  the  under-hopper  is 
discharged  therefrom  once  every  four  hours  into  a  hutch 
immediately  beneath,  this  emptying  action  being  completed 
by  the  lowering  of  a  lid  of  conical  form,  generally  known  as 
a  "  bell."  When  this  hutch  is  filled,  the  retort-man  pushes 
it  out  on  to  the  haulage,  by  which  it  is  carried  away  and  up 


1 86         THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

an  incline,  to  permit  the  contents  to  be  dumped  on  to  the 
waste  heap  or  "  bing." 

The  ammonia  water  which  is  recovered  from  the  atmo- 
spheric condensers  is  pumped  through  a  heater,  where  the 
temperature  is  raised  by  the  spent,  or  waste,  water  flowing 
from  the  still .  The  ammonia  water  then  passes  to  the  still . 
This  is  of  cylindrical  shape,  about  30  feet  in  height,  and  the 
interior  is  fitted  with  shelves,  or  trays,  disposed  at  intervals 
of  2  feet  from  top  to  bottom.  Each  tray  is  connected  to 
its  fellow  below  by  means  of  a  seal-pipe,  while  there  is  a 
chamber  attached  which  contains  milk-of-lime.  The  am- 
monia water  enters  the  still  at  the  top  and  falls  into  the 
trays  successively,  while  it  also  passes  through  the  attached 
chamber.  Steam  is  forced  into  the  bottom  of  the  still 
under  a  pressure  of  40  pounds  per  square  inch,  and  as  it 
passes  over  the  trays  it  collects  the  free  or  volatile  ammonia. 
The  water  which  has  not  given  up  its  "  combined  "  ammonia 
content  is  forced  to  do  so  as  it  passes  through  the  chamber 
containing  the  milk-of-lime,  the  released  gas  being  caught 
by  the  passing  steam .  By  the  time  the  water  has  reached  the 
bottom  of  the  still  it  has  been  compelled  to  deliver  the 
ammonia  it  contains,  and  then  flows  into  a  concrete  tank. 
This  is  fitted  with  a  cast-iron  worm,  and  constitutes  the 
heater  through  which  the  ammonia  water  passes  before  it 
enters  the  still. 

The  steam,  associated  with  the  ammonia  gas,  which  it  has 
collected  during  its  passage  through  the  still,  passes  over 
into  a  lead-lined  tank,  or  saturator,  to  bubble  through  holes 
in  a  lead  worm  disposed  around  the  circumference  at  the 
bottom  of  a  vessel  containing  sulphuric  acid.  The  precipi- 
tate sulphate  of  ammonia  produced  by  the  chemical  action 
falls  into  a  well  formed  in  the  centre  of  the  vessel  base,  where 
are  placed  two  steam  ejectors,  which  blow  out  the  sulphate 
of  ammonia,  together  with  some  of  the  liquor.  This  mixture 
passes  into  hutches  having  perforated  bottoms,  through 
which  the  ammonia  liquor  drains  off  on  to  a  lead-lined  table, 
and  passes  back  to  the  saturator  through  a  connecting  pipe, 
the  solid  sulphate  being  left  in  the  hutch.  The  hutch  is 


OIL  FROM  SHALES:  A  BRITISH  INDUSTRY      187 

picked  up  by  an  overhead  railway,  and  carried  to  the  drying 
or  storage  cells,  after  leaving  which  it  is  packed  and  is  ready 
for  market.  The  spent  water  is  pumped  to  the  spent  shale 
heap,  or  bing,  being  filtered  thoroughly  during  its  passage 
before  it  is  permitted  to  escape. 

There  is  a  special  plant,  comprising  lead-lined  tubs,  or 
crackers,  for  dealing  with  the  weak  acid  water  recovered 
from  the  refinery.  A  quantity  of  acid  water  is  run  into 
these  vessels,  and  is  saturated  with  ammonia  gas  until  it  is 
near  what  is  known  as  the  "  salting  "-point.  Then  it  gravi- 
tates into  settling  vessels  to  enable  any  tar  carried  over 
with  the  acid  water  to  be  separated.  The  clear  liquid  is 
drawn  into  the  saturator,  where  it  is  speedily  converted  into 
sulphate  and  blown  out  in  the  manner  previously  described . 

So  far  as  the  refining  of  the  crude  oil  recovered  from  the 
shale  is  concerned,  this  follows  broadly  the  process  practised 
in  the  refining  of  petroleum,  only  it  is  perforce  somewhat 
more  complex  and  intricate.  In  connection  with  the 
Pumpherston  plant  four  installations — at  Pumpherston, 
Seafield,  Deans,  and  Tarbrax  respectively — deal  with  the 
recovery  of  the  crude  oil  and  the  sulphate  of  ammonia  from 
the  shale.  The  crude  obtained  at  these  four  places  is 
pumped  into  railway  tank-waggons,  and  transported  to 
Pumpherston  to  undergo  refining.  In  view  of  the  success  of 
the  pipe-lines  in  other  countries  for  the  conveyance  of  the 
crude  to  the  refineries,  one  might  wonder  why  a  similar 
method  is  not  practised  in  Scotland.  The  explanation  is 
that  the  Scottish  crude  oil  is  too  viscous  to  be  pumped  at 
natural  temperatures  through  piping. 

The  crude  oil  is  discharged  from  the  railway  tank-waggons 
into  large  tanks,  which  are  placed  at  a  sufficient  height  to 
insure  gravitational  feed  to  the  refining  stills.  Previous  to 
refining  the  crude  is  allowed  to  settle  for  twelve  to  eighteen 
hours  at  a  suitable  temperature  to  secure  the  complete 
separation  of  any  water  which  may  be  present  from  the  oil. 
The  water  is  drawn  off,  and  the  oil  then  is  permitted  to  feed 
the  central  of  a  battery  of  stills.  Fractional  distillation 
ensues,  the  lightest  oils,  or  fractions,  in  the  series — that  is. 


!88         THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

those  comprising  the  naphthas  and  illuminating  oils — being 
distilled  over  and  condensed  subsequently  in  a  condenser 
immersed  in  a  tank  of  cold  water.  As  the  water  of  the 
condenser  becomes  heated  by  radiation  from  hot  coils  con- 
taining the  oil-gases,  it  is  led  off  to  be  cooled,  when  it  is 
used  again,  this  cycle  being  repeated  continuously. 

After  the  more  volatile  oils  have  been  driven  off  from  the 
crude,  the  latter  passes  into  the  stills  disposed  on  either  side 
of  the  feed-still.  Here  further  quantities  of  the  lighter  oils 
are  vaporized  to  be  condensed.  The  residuum,  which  is 
now  far  heavier  and  more  viscous,  passes  into  a  third  series 
of  stills,  where  further  distillation  takes  place.  It  will  be 
observed  from  this  process  that  the  crude  is  made  to  give  up 
every  particle  of  volatile  oils — those  comprising  the  inflam- 
mable and  the  illuminating  series — by  successive  passages 
through  three  stills.  After  the  third  distillation  a  very 
heavy  oil  remains,  and  this  is  passed  into  the  cast-iron  pot- 
still.  Here  the  oil  is  subjected  to  heat  and  distillation  until 
nothing  but  a  dry  residue  remains.  This  is  oil-coke,  which 
constitutes  an  excellent  fuel,  and  which  finds  a  ready  market, 
owing  to  its  high  percentage  of  fixed  carbon  and  low  yield  of 
ash.  It  may  be  mentioned  that,  during  the  process  of  dis- 
tillation, steam  is  forced  into  the  stills  in  large  quantities  to 
facilitate  the  vaporization  of  the  fractions,  the  water  being 
separated  from  the  distillates  subsequently .  Fundamentally 
the  process  of  distillation  does  not  differ  very  much  from 
that  practised  in  connection  with  the  refining  of  petroleum. 
It  is  merely  in  details  that  any  differences  from  the  latter 
practice  prevail. 

The  removal  of  impurities  from  the  distillates  is  accom- 
plished by  the  aid  of  chemicals  and  agitators.  The  oil  is  run 
into  an  iron  vessel,  where  a  certain  proportion  of  sulphuric 
acid  is  added,  and  the  mixture  is  agitated  by  a  stream  of 
compressed  air.  The  contents  are  afterwards  left  to  settle, 
the  acid  sludge  and  tar  forming  a  sediment  at  the  bottom, 
and  the  oil  comprising  the  upper  layer.  The  precipitate  is 
run  off,  and  the  tar  is  separated  from  the  acid  sludge.  The 
acid-treated  oil  is  carried  into  another  vessel,  where  it  is 


OIL  FROM  SHALES:  A  BRITISH  INDUSTRY     189 

neutralized  by  treatment  with  a  solution  of  caustic  soda, 
is  once  more  left  to  settle  to  permit  the  soda  tar  to  dis- 
sociate itself  from  the  oil,  the  first  named  being  drawn  off 
to  enable  the  recovery  of  the  tar  to  be  carried  out,  and  the 
neutralized  oil  then  is  conveyed  to  another  vessel,  where  all 
traces  of  chemicals  are  removed  by  washing. 

The  acid  tars  are  subjected  to  steaming  and  washing 
treatments.  The  acid  water  thus  obtained  is  sent  to  the 
sulphate  of  ammonia  house  for  the  manufacture  of  this 
fertilizer,  whilst  the  tar  is  mixed  with  that  derived  from  the 
soda  vessels,  and  is  used  as  liquid  fuel  for  heating  the  stills, 
an  air  or  steam  jet  being  used  for  spraying  it  into  the  furnaces 
to  secure  efficient  combustion. 

A  certain  proportion  of  the  oil  which  is  distilled  at  the 
second,  or  green,  oil  stage — that  is,  from  the  stills  on  either 
side  of  the  feed-still — is  sent  to  the  paraffin  sheds  to  be  cooled 
and  to  allow  the  scale  to  be  extracted,  so  as  to  enable  it  to  be 
manufactured  into  paraffin  wax.  This  is  an  interesting 
process  in  itself.  The  oil,  after  passing  through  the  stills 
and  the  condensers,  is  run  into  tanks,  and  allowed  to  cool  to 
the  temperature  of  the  surrounding  atmosphere.  Subse- 
quently it  is  subjected  to  a  freezing  operation.  From  the 
tanks  the  cooled  oil  is  pumped  into  the  inner  chamber  of  a 
freezer,  which  consists  of  a  series  of  four  tubular  vessels 
having  inner  and  outer  compartments.  As  the  oil  is  passed 
into  the  inner  compartment,  anhydrous  ammonia  is  forced 
into  the  surrounding  vessel,  or  jacket.  As  this  absorbs  the 
heat  radiated  from  the  contents  of  the  inner  compartment, 
the  oil  in  the  latter  has  its  temperature  persistently  lowered 
until  it  congeals  or  freezes,  in  which  form  it  is  a  pasty  mixture 
of  liquid  oil  and  solid  crystals  of  wax.  This  plastic  mass  is 
pumped  into  filter-presses,  where  a  portion  of  the  loose  oil 
flows  away,  while  the  wax  is  left  in  solid  cakes.  But  the 
latter  still  contain  a  certain  proportion  of  oil,  and  this  has 
to  be  expelled.  The  cakes  are  delivered  by  conveyors  to 
a  hydraulic  press.  Here  each  cake  is  wrapped  in  cloth, 
and  is  placed  on  a  metal  shelf  in  the  press.  When  the 
latter  is  fully  charged  the  pressure  is  applied,  and  the 


190         THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

remaining  free  oil  is  squeezed  out,  leaving  a  solid  mass  in 
the  cloths. 

These  cakes,  or  slabs,  are  known  as  "  paraffin,"  or  "  scale," 
but,  being  discoloured  by  a  certain  proportion  of  oil  remain- 
ing which  pressure  cannot  remove,  its  expulsion  has  to  be 
brought  about  by  what  is  known  as  "  sweating."  Steam 
heat  is  necessary  to  achieve  this  end,  and  the  process  is 
completed  in  sweating  stoves,  which  are  large  brick  apart- 
ments. The  plant  comprises  large  iron  trays,  which  are 
provided  with  false  bottoms  of  iron  lattice-work,  and 
sufficient  water  is  pumped  into  each  to  cover  the  lattice 
bottom.  The  scale,  which  has  been  melted  in  a  boiler  tank 
after  removal  from  the  hydraulic  press,  is  pumped  into  each 
tray  until  it  attains  a  thickness,  or  depth,  of  2  inches  above 
the  lattice.  It  is  left  to  cool  and  settle  into  the  solidified 
form  once  more.  When  this  has  been  accomplished  the 
water  is  run  out  of  the  trays,  the  doors  of  the  stove  are 
closed,  and  the  temperature  of  the  interior  is  raised 
gradually  by  passing  steam  through  coils  disposed  on  either 
side  of  the  building.  As  the  scale  becomes  heated  under  this 
treatment  it  expands  and  becomes  porous.  The  dis- 
colouring yellow  oil  effects  its  escape  from  the  mass,  and, 
draining  into  the  tray  beneath  the  false  bottom  of  lattice- 
work, is  carried  away. 

After  this  oil  has  been  removed  sweating  is  continued  to 
remove  that  proportion  of  the  wax  which  has  a  low  melting- 
point.  Naturally,  as  this  action  takes  place,  the  wax 
assumes  a  whiter  colour  and  a  higher  melting-point.  When 
the  colour  and  melting-point  have  reached  the  required 
degrees,  the  temperature  of  the  stove  is  raised  rapidly  by 
blowing  steam  through  perforations  in  the  bottom  of  the 
trays.  This  brings  about  the  melting  of  the  wax,  which  is 
run  off  in  a  fluid  condition  into  suitable  vessels,  where  it  is 
subjected  to  further  steaming  with  open  steam,  finally  being 
permitted  to  cool  and  to  settle.  Any  water  which  has  become 
associated  with  the  wax  during  this  treatment  becomes 
separated,  and  may  be  run  off.  The  wax  is  pumped  into 
another  vessel,  where  it  is  mixed  with  a  decolourizing 


OIL  FROM  SHALES:  A  BRITISH  INDUSTRY      191 

powder,  which  eliminates  the  remaining  traces  of  yellowness, 
finally  being  passed  through  a  filter-paper  and  moulded  to 
the  required  shape,  size,  and  weight  in  special  trays.  It 
is  once  more  left  to  cool  and  to  solidify  into  a  solid  white 
cake,  known  as  "  paraffin- wax,"  and  is  then  ready  for  the 
market. 

The  products  obtained  from  shale  oils  are  almost  as  varied 
and  as  numerous  as  those  derived  from  petroleum.  The 
most  volatile  fractions  which  are  recovered  range  from 
motor-spirit  to  the  lower  grades  of  benzoline,  and  are  used 
for  the  manufacture  of  varnish,  as  a  substitute  for  turpentine, 
a  solvent  for  india-rubber,  in  the  seed-crushing  trades,  the 
manufacture  of  linoleums,  oil-cloths,  illuminant  for  safety- 
lamps,  and  so  forth.  The  second  group  comprises  the 
illuminating  oils,  which,  by  the  way,  are  superior  to  those 
obtained  from  petroleum.  The  "  pearl ine  "  oil  has  a  very 
high  flash-point,  gives  a  clear  bright  light  with  freedom 
from  smoke,  and  is  eminently  adapted  to  domestic  consump- 
tion for  lighting  and  cooking  purposes.  The  safe  nature  of 
this  oil  may  be  judged  from  the  fact  that  no  accident  ever 
has  attended  its  use,  although  it  has  been  extensively  used 
for  many  years.  At  the  heavy  end  of  the  illuminating  group 
there  is  another  series,  described  as  "  intermediate  oils," 
which  are  excellent  for  cleaning  metals,  grease-making,  gas- 
making  and  enriching,  as  well  as  for  fuel  purposes,  and  so 
on.  The  lubricating  oils  have  very  high  viscosities  in  pro- 
portion to  gravities,  as  well  as  a  striking  freedom  from 
oxidation.  These  are  valuable  properties,  and  render  them 
eminently  suitable  for  blending  with  seed  and  animal  oils, 
as  well  as  with  mineral  oils  of  a  different  base.  For  this 
reason  these  oils  are  in  pronounced  demand  for  blending 
purposes,  especially  in  the  United  States,  where  this  practice 
has  an  extensive  vogue  in  the  preparation  of  synthetic 
specialities.  The  paraffin  wax  is  of  high  purity,  is  tasteless, 
odourless,  and  colourless.  It  finds  a  ready  market  in  the 
manufacture  of  candles,  night-lights,  tapers,  matches,  ex- 
plosives, the  water-proofing  of  papers,  textiles,  and  fabrics, 
as  well  as  for  preservative  wrappers.  Its  peculiar  qualities 


i92          THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

have  also  rendered  it  highly  valuable  in  connection  with  the 
production  of  foodstuffs,  notably  crystallized  fruits,  jellies, 
and  chewing-gum,  while  it  is  not  improbable  that  in  the 
near  future  it  will  be  in  demand  for  the  preparation  of 
artificial  butters,  elaborate  experiments  in  connection  with 
this  application  being  now  in  progress. 

In  addition  to  the  foregoing  range  of  oils,  there  is  last, 
but  by  no  means  least,  the  valuable  fertilizer,  sulphate  of 
ammonia.  This  article  commands  a  ready  sale,  Japan  and 
the  United  States  being  the  largest  consumers.  The  fact 
that  sulphate  of  ammonia  is  obtained  as  a  by-product  and 
in  paying  quantities  offers  an  assurance  to  the  Scottish  shale- 
oil  industry ;  it  compensates  to  a  marked  degree  the  low  prices 
that  may  be  current  in  connection  with  the  foregoing  oils. 

The  success  and  prosperity  of  the  Scottish  shale-oil 
industry  is  a  decided  triumph  for  British  inventive  inge- 
nuity. It  is  additionally  valuable  and  important  when  one 
remembers  that  it  is  the  sole  source  of  native  oil -supply. 
Curiously  enough,  the  process  never  has  flourished  in  any 
other  country  to  the  degree  prevailing  here,  which  offers  a 
striking  tribute  to  Scottish  financial  management  and 
endeavour.  Other  countries  possess  vast  deposits  of  shale 
comparable  with  those  found  north  of  the  Tweed,  notably 
Australia,  Canada,  and  France.  An  ambitious  attempt  was 
made  to  exploit  the  Australian  shale  resources,  but  it  proved 
a  ghastly  failure,  a  round  £1,000,000  or  $5,000,000  being 
wasted  in  the  effort.  It  is  proposed  to  introduce  the 
Scottish  process  into  Canada,  the  deposits  of  shale  in  New 
Brunswick  being  extensive  and  rich  in  the  essential  con- 
stituents. The  industry  in  France,  founded  upon  Du  Buis- 
son's  discovery,  is  still  flourishing,  but  upon  a  limited  scale. 
It  is  hoped  that  the  shales  which  have  been  found  in  Natal 
may  be  proved  to  be  worthy  of  exploitation  by  the  Scottish 
process,  in  which  event  South  Africa,  which  is  sterile  of 
petroleum  resources,  may  be  brought  into  the  list  of  oil- 
yielding  countries. 

Few  people  have  any  conception  of  the  proportions  of  the 
Scottish  shale-oil  industry  or  the  output  of  the  companies 


OIL  FROM  SHALES:  A  BRITISH  INDUSTRY     193 

concerned.  While  the  aggregate  may  be  somewhat  small 
in  comparison  with  the  petroleum  output  of  the  United 
States,  Burmah,  or  Sou th-Eas tern  Europe,  it  has  assumed 
impressive  proportions.  The  various  companies  engaged  in 
the  enterprise  employ  about  10,000  men,  the  majority  of 
whom  are  engaged  in  mining  the  shale,  while  a  round 
£1,000,000,  or  $5,000,000,  are  disbursed  annually  in  wages. 
The  average  yearly  output  is  20,000,000  gallons  of  illumin- 
ating oils,  5,000,000  gallons  of  naphthas,  22,000,000  gallons 
of  lubricating  oils,  25,000  tons  of  paraffin  wax,  and  54,000 
tons  of  sulphate  of  ammonia.  Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
oil  producing  industry  of  Great  Britain  is  of  far  greater 
importance  and  magnitude  than  is  generally  supposed. 
Certainly  it  should  be  fostered,  and  it  is  deserving  of  greater 
recognition  than  it  receives  at  present. 


CHAPTER  XV 

NATURAL  GAS  AND  ITS  USES 

IN  the  early  oil  days  the  emission  of  petroleum,  or  natural, 
gas  from  a  well  that  was  being  drilled  was  not  regarded  with 
unalloyed  delight.  The  driller  appreciated  the  discovery 
merely  because  it  offered  a  fairly  reliable  intimation  that  he 
was  likely  to  strike  oil  if  he  continued  sinking  to  a  sufficient 
depth,  somewhat  upon  the  lines  of  the  theory  that  where 
there  is  smoke  the  probabilities  are  that  fire  will  be  found . 
Otherwise  he  paid  it  scant  attention,  considering  it  to  be  an 
unmitigated  nuisance  as  the  flow  thereof  increased.  Its 
presence  demanded  the  observance  of  greater  care  in  the 
drilling  operations,  and  emphasized  the  advisability  of 
refraining  from  indulgence  in  the  company  of  "  My  Lady 
Nicotine  "  while  at  the  borehole,  and  the  necessity  to  keep 
naked  lights  at  a  respectable  distance  in  order  to  avoid  a 
sudden  flare-up.  When  the  flow  attained  significant  pro- 
portions, a  pipe  was  laid  from  the  borehole  and  carried  to  a 
safe  distance.  A  light  was  applied  to  the  mouth  of  this 
conduit  igniting  the  gas,  which  was  permitted  to  burn  away 
of  its  own  free  will.  The  driller  was  getting  rid  of  a  trouble- 
some factor  in  a  simple  effective  manner,  and  he  was  per- 
fectly content.  That  such  a  gas  should  possess  any  com- 
mercial value  never  occurred  to  him  for  a  moment.  Even 
if  he  had  favourably  appreciated  its  economic  worth  it  would 
have  been  of  little  avail,  because  he  would  have  been  unable 
to  turn  the  supply  to  remunerative  advantage,  owing  to 
lack  of  suitable  markets .  This  attitude  is  somewhat  puzzling 
because  as  far  back  as  1821  the  petroleum  gas  which  escaped 
from  the  earth  at  Fredonia,  in  New  York  State,  was  tapped 
and  turned  to  profitable  advantage. 
194 


NATURAL  GAS  AND  ITS  USES  195 

But  with  progress  came  enlightenment.  Chemists  ana- 
lyzed the  product,  and  found  that  it  could  be  utilized  for  all 
the  purposes  to  which  coal-gas  is  applied  with  equal  success. 
This  prompted  a  greater  interest  in  the  new  fuel,  and  in 
1872  natural  gas,  derived  from  the  Pennsylvania  oil-fields, 
was  regarded  with  favour  in  domestic  circles.  One  factor 
mitigated  against  rapid  development — the  brief  and  uncer- 
tain existence  of  the  gas-wells.  The  majority  lasted  for  only 
some  four  years,  and  then  suddenly  gave  out.  This 
capriciousness  reacted  seriously  against  general  utilization, 
the  result  being  that  its  use  for  the  most  part  was  confined 
to  the  raising  of  steam  in  the  boilers  of  the  drilling  plant.  In 
the  course  of  a  year  or  two  the  public  confidence  was  gained, 
manufacturers  turned  their  attention  to  this  product  for 
industrial  uses,  and  it  was  adopted  extensively  in  the 
smelting  of  iron.  Rapid  expansion  followed  the  success  of 
this  application,  and  in  1884  natural  gas  was  displacing 
400  tons  of  coal  per  day  among  the  manufacturing  plants  of 
Pittsburgh,  the  Sheffield  of  the  United  States.  The  supplies 
were  derived  from  the  contiguous  oil-fields,  but  the  demand 
over-reached  the  supply,  so  that  ultimately  a  reversion  to 
coal  occurred,  although  the  situation  was  relieved  some- 
what by  bringing  supplies  from  a  point  over  100  miles 
away. 

Natural  gas  represents  approximately  the  one  solitary 
form  in  which  petroleum  is  found  in  the  British  Isles,  and 
that  only  in  a  very  limited  quantity.  Even  this  supply  was 
discovered  quite  by  accident.  A  water- well  was  being 
driven  upon  the  property  of  the  railway  company  at 
Heathfield  Station  in  East  Sussex.  The  drillers  detected 
a  strong  smell  of  gas  while  driving  the  bore,  and  when  out 
of  curiosity  a  light  was  applied  to  the  mouth  of  the  borehole, 
and  a  flame  shot  to  a  height  of  some  15  feet,  the  workmen 
were  profoundly  astonished.  The  well  was  capped,  and  the 
supply  devoted  to  the  lighting  of  the  station  premises. 
Although  the  yield  was  approximately  only  1,000  cubic  feet 
per  day,  it  was  responsible  for  the  circulation  of  sensational 
stories  concerning  the  oil  reserves  of  Britain,  and  of  Sussex 


196         THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

in  particular.  If  oil  does  exist  in  Sussex  it  never  has  been 
tapped  yet,  though  evidences  of  gas  are  frequently  encoun- 
tered in  this,  as  in  other  countries,  during  artesian  well- 
sinking  operations. 

The  North  American  continent  is  far  more  bounteously 
blessed  by  Nature  in  this  respect.  The  country  is  not  only 
an  enormous  subterranean  oil-tank,  but  is  a  gigantic 
gasometer  as  well.  From  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific  sea- 
board, and  from  Nome  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  gas  is  found  in 
abundance.  While  at  places  the  yield  is  insignificant,  at 
other  points  it  gushes  from  the  earth  with  terrific  force, 
showing  the  degree  to  which  it  is  compressed  below.  Nowa- 
days, when  a  flow  of  natural  gas  is  struck,  the  well  is  capped 
and  facilities  provided  for  the  conveyance  and  distribution 
of  the  commodity  among  the  adjacent  and  even  distant 
manufacturing  and  residential  centres,  even  although  it  may 
entail  the  laying  of  miles  of  trunk-mains.  For  instance, 
Chicago  draws  its  natural  gas  from  a  field  about  120  miles 
away.  In  Kansas,  Louisiana,  California,  Alberta,  and 
numerous  other  States,  coal-gas  is  virtually  unknown. 
Nature  meets  all  the  demands  of  the  population  from  her 
inexhaustible  store.  In  other  countries,  where  vast  quanti- 
ties of  oil  are  drawn  from  the  earth,  similar  conditions 
prevail ;  gas  is  emitted  in  abundance,  and  is  turned  to  com- 
mercial advantage  in  some  form  or  another  form. 

Some  idea  of  the  enormous  supplies  and  consumption  of 
natural  gas  in  the  United  States  may  be  gathered  from  the 
iact  that  over  $65,000,000  (£13,000,000)  worth  are  drawn 
and  used  annually.  The  quantity  which  is  wasted,  owing 
to  lack  of  facilities  to  cap  and  conserve  the  gas,  assumes 
stupendous  proportions.  When  the  Caddo  oil-field  was 
opened  up,  it  is  estimated  that  over  100,000,000  cubic  feet 
of  gas  escaped  into  the  air  every  twenty-four  hours.  Even 
assessing  this  loss  at  one  cent,  or  £d.,  per  cubic  foot,  the 
daily  wastage  represented  no  less  than  $1,000,000,  or 
£200,000.  Under  these  circumstances  it  is  not  surprising 
that  every  effort  is  made  to  control  the  yields  when  they 
burst  into  activity,  or  that  the  Government  compels  control 


NATURAL  GAS  AJ^D  ITS  USES  197 

of  the  wells,  since  natural  gas  represents  a  substantial  item 
in  the  fuel  resources  of  a  nation. 

The  gas-belt  of  the  United  States  extends  northwards 
through  the  Dominion  of  Canada.  While  the  crude  oil 
resources  of  British  North  America  are  somewhat  limited, 
at  least  so  far  as  results  at  present  go,  there  is  a  prolific 
supply  of  natural  gas.  This  fact  was  revealed  accidentally 
by  drillers  engaged  in  sinking  wells  for  water  on  behalf  of 
the  railway  company,  tapping  the  natural  gasometer  instead. 
The  strike  was  made  in  the  vicinity  of  Medicine  Hat,  and 
this  town  has  since  developed  into  the  centre  of  the  exploited 
Canadian  gas-field. 

The  discovery  of  the  railway  employees  prompted  definite 
investigation  by  the  authorities,  while  the  young  enterprising 
town  of  Medicine  Hat  seized  the  opportunity  to  municipalize 
the  resources  within  its  own  jurisdiction.  The  gas  area 
which  has  been  exploited  in  this  territory  extends  from 
Bassano,  ninety -five  miles  west  of  Medicine  Hat,  to  Dunmore, 
on  the  east  of  the  latter  town,  and,  as  the  pressure  at  Dun- 
more  is  approximately  the  same  as  at  the  central  point,  it  is 
evident  that  the  field  extends  considerably  beyond  Dunmore. 
On  the  western  side  of  Medicine  Hat  the  flow  gradually 
decreases  until  at  Bassano  the  flow  is  more  or  less  limited  in 
character,  so  that  this  point  evidently  indicates  the  western 
edge  of  the  field.  North  and  south  borings  have  not  been 
carried  out  so  continuously  and  methodically  as  in  the  other 
direction,  but  wells  have  been  drilled  at  Bow  Island,  seventy 
miles  south  of  Medicine  Hat,  and  these,  though  carried  to  a 
greater  depth  than  at  the  latter  point,  give  an  excellent 
yield,  indicating  that  in  all  probability  the  gas  territory 
extends  continuously  south  into  the  United  States.  On  the 
northern  side  the  boundary  is  still  undefined,  but  flows  have 
been  struck  between  Medicine  Hat  and  Edmonton,  while  at 
Pelican  Rapids,  300  miles  north  of  Edmonton,  very  large 
flows  have  been  tapped.  Consequently,  it  is  only  justifiable 
to  surmise  that  the  area  extends  to  an  extreme  northern 
point,  and  possibly  connects  with  the  oil  and  tar  asphalt 
beds  which  are  known  to  exist  in  the  extreme  northern 


I98         THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

reaches  of  Canada,  and  which  as  yet  are  practically  unreal- 
ized. Experts  rather  incline  to  the  opinion  that  the  field 
extends  in  an  unbroken  line  parallel  to  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
and  as  gas  is  invariably  found  at  the  top  of  an  anticline 
it  would  seem  that  this  anticline  might  be  caused  by  the 
weight  of  the  mountain-range.  But  the  width  and  thickness 
of  the  belt,  together  with  the  depth  at  which  the  gas  is  to 
be  found,  vary  considerably,  so  that  years  must  elapse  before 
the  exact  area  of  the  gas-bearing  country  is  defined,  even 
with  approximate  accuracy. 

Curiously  enough,  although  enormous  reserves  of  natural 
gas  exist  here,  and  the  gas  is  compressed  to  an  enormous 
degree,  as  is  evidenced  by  the  pressure  of  the  flows,  practic- 
ally little  oil  has  been  found.  This  may  be  due  to  the  fact 
that  drilling  has  not  been  carried  to  a  sufficient  depth  to 
traverse  the  gas-belt.  In  the  early  part  of  1914  oil-strikes 
were  made  in  the  vicinity  of  Calgary,  which  is  situate  on  the 
western  boundary  of  the  gas-field,  but  the  yield  was  not  as 
sensational  as  those  incidental  to  the  opening  of  other 
famous  districts .  No  signs  of  a  gusher  were  reveal  ed ,  because 
the  oil  filled  the  well  slowly,  so  that  no  apprehensions  what- 
ever arose  as  to  its  being  found  in  sufficient  volume  as  to 
defy  control.  Possibly  the  provision  of  vents,  as  repre- 
sented by  the  boreholes  for  the  compressed  gas,  has 
reacted  against  the  possibilities  of  a  gusher  coming  into 
activity. 

At  Medicine  Hat  gas  is  first  struck  at  a  depth  of  125  feet, 
but  as  it  is  heavily  impregnated  with  moisture,  it  is  not 
commercially  exploited.  At  a  depth  of  650  feet  a  more 
prolific  stratum  is  reached,  but  this  likewise  is  not  used  to 
an  appreciable  degree.  The  main  supplies  are  derived  from 
a  stratum  laying  from  950  to  1,050  feet  below  the  surface. 
By  drilling  to  this  bed  the  city  obtained  a  flow  varying 
between  2,500,000  and  4,000,000  cubic  feet  per  twenty-four 
hours. 

WeU-sinking  is  not  particularly  expensive.  The  strata 
for  the  most  part  are  easily  penetrated,  soft  shales  pre- 
dominating. Cost  is  increased  by  the  necessity  to  instal 


NATURAL  GAS  AND  ITS  USES  199 

various  strings  of  casing  in  order  to  reach  the  depth  required. 
The  average  cost  of  drilling,  including  casing,  valves,  and 
regulators  for  controlling  the  supply,  is  approximately 
$10,000,  or  £2,000,  per  well. 

With  the  exception  of  three  wells,  which  are  private 
property,  the  whole  of  the  boring  rights  have  been  vested 
by  the  Federal  Government  in  the  city,  so  that  the  supply 
is  under  municipal  control,  and  this  arrangement  has  con- 
tributed conspicuously  to  the  prosperity  and  growth  of  the 
town.  This  control  extends  over  four  townships,  and  as 
each  township  is  six  miles  square,  the  municipal  gas  rights 
are  vested  in  an  area  of  144  square  miles.  Public  ownership 
maintains  the  balance  between  supply  and  demand,  and 
enables  the  item  of  waste  to  be  reduced  to  practically 
nothing.  The  first  well  was  sunk  twelve  years  ago,  and  is 
still  in  service.  At  the  end  of  1912  there  were  twelve  wells 
in  operation,  but  in  order  to  make  ample  provision  for  future 
needs  a  contract  for  nine  additional  wells  was  let  at  an 
outlay  of  $75,000  (£15,000).  This  brings  the  total  to 
twenty-one  wells,  the  gas-supply  from  which  will  be  adequate 
for  many  years  to  come.  As  the  wells  are  brought  into  pro- 
ductivity they  are  capped,  so  that  they  can  be  brought  into 
service  when  required. 

The  Canadian  natural  gas,  in  common  with  the  greater 
bulk  of  that  derived  throughout  the  North  American  conti- 
nent, is  marsh  or  methane.  The  analysis  of  that  derived  at 
Medicine  Hat  shows  methane,  99^5  per  cent.  (o-5  hydrogen). 
Oxygen  is  virtually  non-existent,  only  the  very  slightest 
traces  being  observable.  Owing  to  the  depth  from  which 
the  article  is  drawn,  it  is  extremely  dry,  and  it  is  this  feature 
which  renders  it  so  eminently  adaptable  to  domestic  and 
industrial  application,  since  the  pipes  are  relieved  from 
obstruction  by  condensed  moisture  and  other  impurities 
associated  therewith,  and  which  in  time  collect  in  the  same 
way  as  chalk  suspended  in  water  will  be  deposited  in  the 
form  of  fur,  and  clog  the  mains. 

The  gas  is  supplied  direct  to  the  consumer  from  the 
bowels  of  the  earth.  That  is  to  say,  there  are  no  above- 


200         THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

ground  storage  facilities,  such  as  the  gasometers  used  in 
connection  with  the  manufacture  of  coal-gas.  But,  owing 
to  the  pressure — 550  pounds  per  square  inch— with  which 
the  gas  issues  from  the  earth,  means  have  to  be  introduced 
to  reduce  this  factor  to  domestic  and  industrial  exigencies. 
In  the  first-named  instance  a  pressure  of  6  ounces  per  square 
inch  is  adequate;  on  the  other  hand,  the  pressure  of  the 
supply  has  to  be  varied  for  industrial  purposes,  according  to 
the  character  of  the  application  and  the  objects  for  which 
it  is  required.  To  achieve  this  end  regulator  stations  are 
provided.  The  gas  as  it  comes  from  the  well  is  passed 
through  the  high-pressure  regulator,  where  its  pressure  is 
reduced  from  550  to  50  pounds  per  square  inch,  and  at  this 
figure  it  enters  the  high-pressure  distributing  mains  laid 
throughout  the  town.  At  intervals  low-pressure  stations 
are  installed,  and  here  the  gas-pressure  undergoes  further 
reduction,  from  50  pounds  to  6  ounces  per  square  inch,  at 
which  pressure  it  is  sent  into  the  pipes  supplying  domestic 
consumers.  In  the  case  of  the  manufacturing  and  industrial 
plants  regulators  are  installed  to  give  whatever  pressure  is 
required  for  the  individual  concern.  Thereby  the  pressure 
may  be  varied  to  meet  fluctuating  requirements.  The  load 
factor  varies  very  considerably  throughout  the  day,  as  may 
be  supposed,  but  roughly  the  maximum  is  about  five  times 
the  minimum  consumption. 

As  may  be  supposed,  manufacturers  and  residents  who 
happen  to  be  in  close  proximity  to  an  abundant  supply  of 
natural  gas  are  in  a  fortunate  position.  Light,  power,  and 
heat  are  obtainable  very  inexpensively.  For  domestic  pur- 
poses in  Medicine  Hat  gas  costs  13^  cents  (say  yd.)  per 
1,000  cubic  feet.  The  total  cost  for  lighting,  heating,  and 
cooking  by  natural  gas  in  a  six-roomed  house  ranges  from 
$30  to  $50  (£6  to  £10)  per  annum.  For  manufacturing  pur- 
poses the  rates  are  considerably  lower,  scaling  from  5  cents, 
or  2^d.,  per  1,000  feet  downwards.  In  fact,  if  manufacturing 
is  contemplated  upon  an  extensive  scale,  and  the  con- 
sumption of  fuel  is  likely  to  be  heavy,  gas  may  be  obtained 


By  courtesy  of  the  Oil  Well  Supply  Company. 
A   TERRIFYING   TORCH. 

The  "  Maggie  Vanderpool  "  natural  gas-well  near  Caney,  Montgomery  County,  Kansas, 
U.S.A.,  was  struck  by  lightning  on  February  igth,  1906,  and  fired.  Some  3,000,000  cubic  feet 
per  hour  were  burned,  the  flame  reaching  a  height  of  225  feet,  and  it  took  thirty-eight  days  to 
extinguish  the  blaze. 

To  face  page  200. 


A   FLAMING   ADVERTISEMENT. 

Blowing  off  Big  Chief  Gas  Well,  Medicine  Hat,  Alberta,  to  illustrate  the  extent  of  the  natural 
gas  resources  of  this  district  in  Western  Canada.  The  pressure  was  500  Ibs.  per  square  inch,  and 
the  daily  flow  3,000,000  cubic  feet. 


To  face  page  201. 


NATURAL  GAS  AND  ITS  USES  201 

for  i  cent,  or  £d.,  per  1,000  feet  by  making  a  long-term 
contract. 

Provided  raw  materials  are  available  upon  the  spot,  or  can 
be  brought  in  at  a  low  rate,  a  centre  possessing  an  abundant 
supply  of  this  fuel  offers  many  inducements  to  manu- 
facturers. For  instance,  in  Medicine  Hat,  assuming  the  gas 
costs  5  cents,  or  2£d.,  per  1,000  cubic  feet,  and  estimating 
a  ten-hours'  day,  $3*05  (about  I2S.  6d.)  per  horse-power 
represents  the  fuel  outlay  per  year.  This  is  equivalent  to 
anthracite  coal  at  $no  (43.  6d.)  per  ton,  exclusive  of 
operating  costs,  which  is  a  ridiculously  low  figure  for  this 
class  of  coal  in  Alberta.  What  applies  to  Medicine  Hat  is 
reflected  in  a  far  more  powerful  form  in  other  parts  of  the 
continent,  where  similar  resources  obtain.  It  is  not  sur- 
prising, therefore,  that  every  effort  is  now  being  made  to 
husband  the  natural  gas  resources,  because  it  offers  a  com- 
plete solution  of  the  cheap  fuel  problem. 

The  manufacturer  entertains  only  one  apprehension. 
Are  the  natural  gas-supplies  likely  to  cease  at  any  moment  ? 
This  has  occurred  so  frequently  in  proved  gas-fields  through- 
out the  continent  that  the  anxieties  of  manufacturing 
interests  are  well  founded.  But  so  far  as  Medicine  Hat  is 
concerned,  the  fact  that  the  first  well  sunk  is  yielding  gas  at 
the  pressure  which  was  recorded  when  the  natural  gasometer 
was  tapped  for  the  first  time,  proves  convincingly  that  the 
subterranean  supplies  are  enormous,  and  unless  some 
abnormal  cataclysm  occurs,  such  as  an  earthquake,  which 
might  disturb  the  conformity  of  the  earth  strata,  the  natural 
gas-supplies  are  not  likely  to  give  out  for  centuries.  But 
the  possibility  of  the  unexpected  happening  has  not  been 
overlooked  at  Medicine  Hat.  The  municipal  authorities  set 
aside  20  per  cent,  of  the  annual  net  profits  derived  from 
the  sale  of  natural  gas  as  a  contribution  to  a  sinking 
fund,  which  is  to  be  devoted  to  the  provision  of  cheap 
power  whenever  the  natural  gas  resources  shall  become 
exhausted. 

The  industrial  uses  of  natural  gas  are  practically  illimitable 


202          THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

It  is  compressed  into  the  cylinders  of  railway  coaches  both  for 
lighting  and  for  cooking  in  the  kitchens  of  the  dining-cars ; 
the  flow  from  the  earth  is  turned  direct  to  ordinary  gas- 
engines,  and  even  to  the  high-speed  internal  combustion 
motors.  Electricity  is  generated  cheaply  by  its  aid;  it  con- 
stitutes a  cheap  source  of  power  for  the  driving  of  any 
machinery— in  fact,  it  is  applicable  to  any  phase  of  human 
activity,  with  the  exception,  perhaps,  of  the  blast-furnace. 

During  the  past  two  or  three  years  a  new  development  in 
connection  with  natural  gas  has  been  revealed,  and  is  under- 
going considerable  utilization  in  the  United  States.  The 
pipes  through  which  the  gas  is  conducted  accumulate 
appreciable  quantities  of  liquid,  the  volume  of  which  is 
greater  in  winter  than  in  summer.  At  first  this  liquid  was 
regarded  as  water;  the  moisture  associated  with  the  gas 
condensed  upon  coming  into  contact  with  the  cold  surface 
of  the  pipe.  But  investigation  revealed  that  this  "  drip,"  as 
it  is  called,  was  a  highly  volatile  spirit,  virtually  high-grade, 
gasolene,  or  petrol.  It  was  carefully  collected,  the  refineries, 
in  their  anxiety  to  obtain  every  ounce  of  oil,  proving  ready 
purchasers.  This  peculiar  fact  set  one  imaginative  inventor 
thinking.  If  the  gas  deposited  this  liquid  voluntarily,  could 
not  scientific  force  be  applied  to  make  it  yield  greater 
quantities  ?  In  other  words,  could  not  the  gas  be  squeezed  ? 
The  more  he  pondered  over  the  question  the  more  thoroughly 
he  became  convinced  that  a  process  could  be  contrived  to 
produce  motor  spirit  from  natural  gas  upon  commercial 
lines. 

The  inventor,  John  Lathrop  Gray,  who  was  the  first  to 
study  this  question  in  its  broadest  aspects,  set  to  work  and 
erected  a  plant  for  the  condensation  of  natural  gas.  Realizing 
that  simplicity  and  economy  would  govern  the  issue  from  the 
commercial  point  of  view,  he  resolved  his  idea  into  a  simple 
straightforward  process.  The  results  achieved  were  some- 
what startling,  and  forthwith  he  embraced  the  protection 
the  law  affords,  and  patented  his  idea.  Curiously  enough 
he  appears  to  have  been  the  first  to  have  viewed  the  issue 


NATURAL  GAS  AND  ITS  USES  203 

from  such  a  standpoint ;  at  least  he  was  the  first  to  take  out 
a  comprehensive  patent  to  extract  motor  fuel  from  natural 
gas.  His  scheme  was  regarded  as  a  scientific  phantasy;  he 
was  ridiculed  on  all  sides.  But  as  time  progressed,  and  the 
fact  that  Gray  was  deriving  a  stable  volatile  spirit  from  the 
gas  in  paying  quantities,  and  cheaply,  became  realized, 
scepticism  gave  way  to  appreciation,  and  in  turn  to  realiza- 
tion, of  the  immense  value  of  the  idea.  So  much  so  that 
those  who  exploited  natural  gas  immediately  conceived 
wondrous  castles  in  the  air  from  the  derivation  of  motor 
spirit  therefrom,  irrespective  of  the  fact  that  the  constitution 
of  the  gas  has  to  be  such  as  will  yield  the  spirit.  To  trap 
gasolene  from  natural  gas  it  is  imperative,  as  reflection  will 
convince,  that  gasolene  must  be  present,  otherwise  one  might 
just  as  well  endeavour  to  condense  motor  spirit  from  steam. 
Yet  the  task  of  squeezing  gasolene  from  gas  appears  to  be 
so  attractive  and  simple  that  the  wild-catter  has  made  a 
rich  harvest. 

At  first  sight  one  would  think  that  the  condensation  of 
the  vapour  would  be  a  straightforward  operation,  following 
the  broad  lines  observed  for  condensing  any  liquid  vapour 
suspended  in  a  gaseous  medium.  To  a  certain  degree  this 
impression  is  correct,  but  complexity  arises  for  the  reason 
that  the  vapours  suspended  in  natural  gas  belong  to  three 
or  more  chemical  series.  The  consequence  is  that,  in  order 
to  achieve  complete  success,  it  is  necessary  to  possess  a 
suitable  plant,  and  to  carry  the  compression  and  cooling  of 
the  gases  to  the  requisite  degree  to  insure  the  recovery  of 
the  article  desired. 

Gray  was  sufficiently  astute  to  concentrate  his  energies 
upon  the  perfection  of  the  simplest  and  most  effective  means 
of  achieving  this  end,  and  it  is  due  to  this  observance  of  an 
immutable  commercial  law  which  has  insured  his  success. 
A  very  simple  type  of  compressor  and  cooler  was  evolved,  in 
which  economical  operation  is  insured  by  the  use  of  the  gas, 
after  the  stable  spirit  has  been  extracted,  to  drive  the 
machinery.  He  also  uses  simple  separating  devices,  with 


204          THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

an  automatic  trap  to  transfer  the  liquid  in  a  continuous 
stream  to  a  proper  receiving  tank.  The  automatic  system 
for  collecting  the  precipitate  solves  the  question  of  imparting 
to  the  liquid  the  essential  stability,  and  also  reduces  losses 
from  atmospheric  evaporation  to  the  minimum. 

Within  a  few  months  of  the  commercial  recognition  of 
Gray's  process,  the  amount  of  gasolene  recovered  in  this 
manner  exceeded  2,000  barrels  a  day.  Since  then  it  has 
advanced  with  great  rapidity,  and  now,  instead  of  being 
merely  in  the  light  of  a  scientific  demonstration  suited  to  the 
laboratory,  it  is  being  practised  upon  all  sides.  It  must  be 
remembered  that  the  fundamental  properties  of  the  gas  so 
treated  are  not  affected  in  any  way ;  the  latter  can  be  used 
just  as  effectively  as  if  it  were  not  submitted  to  the  squeezing 
operation.  By  this  process  the  gasolene  which  formerly 
escaped  recovery  is  being  derived.  When  the  "  drip  "  was 
first  discovered  it  was  regarded  with  doubt.  The  refiners 
classed  it  as  inferior,  although  water-white  in  colour,  and 
apparently  equal  to  the  distilled  spirit.  This  impression 
probably  arose  because  the  liquid  was  drawn  off  only 
periodically.  Having  lain  stagnant  in  the  pipes  it  possibly 
became  contaminated  with  rusty  surfaces  and  association 
with  dirty  oil  products.  At  all  events,  the  producers  were 
quite  content  to  dispose  of  it  for  about  25  per  cent,  of  its 
real  market  value. 

This  gasolene  in  its  purest  form  represents  the  fraction 
succeeding  the  petroleum  ether,  so  that  its  specific  gravity 
is  about  0-610.  It  may  be  distilled  in  exactly  the  same 
manner  as  crude  oil,  so  that  it  can  be  reduced  to  more  homo- 
geneous fractions.  If  it  is  to  be  marketed  as  pure  gasolene , 
the  fraction  which  is  too  volatile  to  be  rendered  stable  at 
atmospheric  pressure  and  normal  temperature  is  driven  off, 
thereby  bringing  its  specific  gravity  to  about  o'68o.  But 
the  fact  that,  in  its  raw  condition,  it  represents  the  highest 
grades  of  petroleum  spirit  render  it  exceedingly  useful  for 
another  purpose.  For  the  lack  of  a  more  accurate  descrip- 
tion this  application  may  be  termed  "  blending,"  and  this 


NATURAL  GAS  AND  ITS  USES  205 

doubtless  will  constitute  its  most  popular  use.  If  it  is 
associated  with  an  inferior  quality  of  motor  fuel,  the  specific 
gravity,  and  consequently  the  marketable  value  of  the 
product,  is  raised  very  appreciably.  It  acts  as  a  stimulant, 
or  "  enlivener,"  enabling  the  whole  mixture  to  be  vaporized 
with  facility,  and  without  recourse  to  any  adjustment  of  the 
carburettor,  for  the  reason  that  this  natural  gasolene,  as  it 
it  described,  has  a  very  high  fuel  value.  The  condensate 
is  perfectly  miscible — that  is  to  say,  it  will  dissolve  itself 
readily  into  another  naphtha  fraction  —  and,  curiously 
enough,  the  action  is  so  complete  that  even  fractional  dis- 
tillation will  not  completely  separate  the  two  fractions. 

This  virtue  has  not  escaped  the  notice  of  the  refiners. 
Natural  gasolene,  or  natural  gas,  condensate  is  too  valuable 
to  sell  in  its  purified  condition.  The  low-grade  naphthas, 
which  are  appreciably  cheaper,  may  be  blended  therewith, 
and  then  be  sold  at  the  highest  prices  obtaining  for  motor 
spirit.  Experiments  have  proved  that  it  may  even  be 
mixed  with  the  higher  grades  of  paraffin — illuminating  oils 
of  0*800  specific  gravity  and  upwards — and  give  a  product 
which  to  all  intents  and  purposes  is  equal  to  the  present 
motor  fuel,  which  is  vended  as  gasolene  or  petrol.  The 
"  blended  fuel  "  fails  to  reveal  in  any  way  the  circumstance 
that  it  has  been  subjected  to  enlivening.  This  discovery  is 
being  shelved  for  the  time  being,  as  the  exigencies  of  the 
moment  do  not  demand  extensive  marketing  of  a  blended 
motor-fuel,  but,  as  the  yield  of  volatile  distillate  from  the 
crude  oils  diminishes,  it  will  have  to  be  brought  into  opera- 
tion. Thereby  the  refiners  will  be  enabled  to  dispose  of  a 
fraction — the  paraffins — which  at  present  are  in  decreasing 
demand. 

As  in  the  case  of  oil,  the  natural  gas  is  exposed  to  one 
terrible  enemy — fire.  Here  again  carelessness,  accident, 
and  Act  of  God  are  the  principal  contributors  to  disaster 
Natural  gas  is  an  obsequious  servant  but  a  terrifying  master 
Now  and  again  there  is  a  catastrophe  of  abnormal  magni- 
tude, but  man  eventually  proves  to  be  equal  to  the  situation. 


2o6         THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

This  was  notably  the  case  in  connection  with  the  "  Maggie 
Vanderpool  "  gas-well,  which  was  brought  into  productivity 
near  Caney,  Montgomery  County,  in  the  State  of  Kansas, 
U.S.A.  This  well  was  extraordinarily  productive,  the  flow 
being  estimated  at  3,000,000  cubic  feet  of  gas  per  hour. 
On  February  19, 1906,  during  a  severe  thunderstorm,  a  flash 
of  lightning  fired  the  well.  Immediately  a  huge  sheet  of 
flame  shot  into  the  air  to  a  height  of  225  feet. 

It  was  a  gigantic  gas-jet  illuminating  the  country  for  miles 
around;  a  newspaper  could  be  read  a  mile  away  with  ease. 
At  i  cent,  or  £d.,  a  1,000  feet  gas  to  the  value  of  $720,000, 
or  £144,000,  was  disappearing  in  an  intense  white  sheet  of 
flame  every  twenty-four  hours,  and  as  the  fire  defied 
extinction  for  five  weeks  the  huge  sum  of  $25,200,000,  or 
more  than  £5,000,000  was  lost  beyond  recovery.  The  heat 
was  so  intense  that  approach  within  100  feet  was  rendered 
dangerous,  and  the  fire-fighters  who  succeeded  in  driving 
their  way  to  50  feet  of  the  jet  had  their  clothes  burned 
off  their  backs.  The  heat  radiated  wrought  a  wonder- 
ful change  upon  the  surrounding  countryside,  which  was 
converted  into  a  huge  hothouse.  Although  it  was  mid- 
winter, and  an  exceptionally  low  temperature  prevailed, 
the  shrubs  burst  into  leaf,  while  the  prairie  flowers  came 
into  blossom. 

The  roar  was  so  deafening  that  it  could  be  heard  miles 
away.  At  a  distance  of  200  feet  the  fire-fighters  could  not 
make  their  voices  heard,  and  all  instructions  had  to  be 
conveyed  by  signs.  The  wind  in  the  vicinity  offered 
another  serious  handicap,  because  the  flame  set  up  a  powerful 
induced  draught.  Loose  articles,  such  as  hats,  coats,  and 
other  articles  lying  upon  the  ground,  within  a  radius  of 
100  feet,  were  whirled 'into  the  air  as  if  caught  by  a 
tornado,  and  sucked  into  the  flames.  The  extinction  of 
this  fire  was  one  of  the  most  difficult  in  natural  gas 
history.  Although  the  colossal  quantity  of  2,520,000,000 
cubic  feet  of  gas  vanished  in  flame,  the  well,  when  brought 
under  control  once  more,  revealed  no  signs  of  depletion  or 


NATURAL  GAS  AND  ITS  USES  207 

reduction  in  pressure,  and  is  in  good  productive  condition 
to  this  day. 

Generally  speaking,  little  difficulty  is  experienced  in  con- 
trolling the  heaviest  flows  of  gas.  Provided  reasonable 
precautions  are  observed,  when  a  strike  is  made,  there  is  little 
risk  of  conflagration.  The  well  is  capped  directly  the  flow 
is  established,  and  it  is  left  untouched  until  the  need  arises 
upon  the  completion  of  facilities  to  enable  it  to  fulfil  the 
multifarious  behests  of  man. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

THE  OIL  INVASION  OF  THE  TABLE 

WHILE  the  mechanical  world  presents  the  most  familiar  com- 
mercial conquests  of  oil,  they  are  by  no  means  confined  to 
that  realm.  Oil  has  advanced  in  several  other  directions, 
and  has  even  invaded  the  table.  It  has  come  to  be  regarded 
as  a  staple  article  of  food  for  mankind.  It  offers  an  effective 
solution  to  the  eternal  problem  of  the  cost  of  living,  which 
at  the  moment  is  perplexing  every  home,  not  only  in  Great 
Britain  and  the  United  States  of  America,  but  in  every 
civilized  country  to  a  greater  or  a  lesser  degree. 

The  average  individual  may  resent  the  suggestion  that 
he  is  becoming  dependent  upon  oil  for  sustenance ;  neverthe- 
less the  fact  remains.  What  the  eye  does  not  see,  and  what 
the  mind  does  not  know,  occasions  the  heart  no  grief.  The 
word  "  oil  "  is  used  in  its  most  elastic  sense  in  this  particula  r 
instance,  embracing  as  it  does  fats  and  greases  of  various 
descriptions.  While  it  does  not  necessarily  refer  to  mineral 
oils  these,  too,  are  implied  to  a  certain  extent. 

So  far  as  comestibles  are  concerned,  the  oils  employed  for 
the  most  part  are  of  animal  and  vegetable  origin.  Some 
of  these  are  avowedly  known  as  such,  as,  for  instance,  olive 
oil,  which  is  derived  from  the  olive,  and  so  on.  But  what  is 
not  generally  known  is  the  utilization  of  oils  for  various  other 
edible  purposes,  of  which  one  has  not  the  faintest  conception, 
a  result  due  to  indefatigable  and  successful  chemical, 
mechanical,  and  physical  research.  This  is  essentially  a 
synthetic  age,  and  there  are  few  provinces  in  which  the 
scientist  has  such  a  golden  opportunity  to  manifest  his 
prowess  as  in  the  production  of  artificial  edible  products  at 
about  one-half  or  one-quarter  of  the  cost  of  the  genuine 
208 


THE  OIL  INVASION  OF  THE  TABLE  209 

article.  Substitution  is  always  preferable  to  adulteration, 
and  hence  arises  the  scientist's  activity.  The  community 
reaps  the  benefit  especially  when  the  artificial  is  equal  to  the 
genuine  substance,  since  there  is  no  susceptibility  to  physical 
deterioration. 

Substitution,  so  far  as  the  table  is  concerned,  is  repre- 
sented in  its  most  compelling  form  by  synthetic  butter, 
generally  known  as  "  butterine,"  or  "  margarine."  The 
practicability  of  making  a  butter  substitute  was  demon- 
strated for  the  first  time  by  a  French  chemist,  Mege  Mouries- 
He  prosecuted  this  peculiar  line  of  investigation  at  the  insti- 
gation of  Napoleon  III.,  who  argued  that,  as  his  more  humble 
subjects,  impoverished  by  the  ravages  of  war,  could  not 
afford  pure  dairy  butter,  it  would  be  preferable  to  provide 
them  with  a  cheap  wholesome  substitute  than  a  pernicious 
adulterated  article.  His  motives  were  essentially  humani- 
tarian, and  his  attitude  stimulated  Mege  Mouries  to  supreme 
effort. 

Pure  dairy  butter  is  composed  of  butter  fat  and  small 
proportions  of  casein  and  milk  sugar.  The  latter  impart  the 
distinctive  flavour  to  the  article  made  from  the  cow's  milk. 
Profiting  from  this  knowledge,  Mege  Mouries  indulged  in 
numerous  experiments  of  an  interesting  character,  the  most 
fruitful  of  which,  from  his  point  of  view,  was  the  discovery 
that  it  was  not  necessary  to  feed  a  cow  on  pasture,  or  other 
milk-producing  foodstuffs,  to  induce  the  yield  of  a  milk  rich 
in  butter  fat.  When  the  animal  was  kept  off  water  it  con- 
tinued to  yield  milk  rich  in  this  constituent.  From  this  he 
concluded  that  the  fat  contained  in  the  milk  was  not 
extracted  from  the  food,  but  was  given  up  by  the  creature 
itself  from  its  own  bodily  structure.  This  discovery 
prompted  him  to  take  theoil  from  the  caul  fat  of  the  bullock, 
which  is  generally  known  as  "  oleo,"  and  to  blend  it  with 
fresh  milk,  virtually  reproducing  in  a  machine  the  action 
which  takes  place  in  the  udder  of  the  cow.  Oleo,  or  the 
clarified  oil  of  beef-fat,  is  practically  pure  butter-fat,  and 
accordingly  it  came  to  be  regarded  as  the  fundamental  con- 
stituent of  synthetic  butter. 

14 


210         THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

It  was  a  pretty  and  interesting  line  of  research,  but  it  is 
doubtful  whether  the  French  chemist  ever  realized  the 
radical  revolution  his  discovery  was  destined  to  make.  He 
was  content  with  the  results  of  his  investigations,  and  indi- 
cated the  lines  along  which  future  developments  should 
proceed.  They  were  so  correct  that  they  are  followed  to 
this  day  in  a  manner  consistent  with  progressive  develop- 
ments in  scientific  research. 

While  Mege  Mouries'  discovery  came  as  an  unmitigated 
blessing  to  one  class  of  the  community,  other  interests  rose 
up  in  arms.  The  substitute  threatened  the  very  existence 
of  the  dairy-butter  makers,  although  at  that  time  it  was 
very  easy  to  detect  the  difference  between  the  genuine  and 
the  synthetic  article.  Those  who  embraced  the  new  industry 
christened  the  product  "  butterine,"  but  the  dairy  farmers, 
arguing  that  such  a  description  was  not  sufficiently  dis- 
tinctive, and  was  liable  to  provoke  fraudulent  dealing, 
enlisted  Parliamentary  assistance  to  prohibit  the  use  of  the 
affix  "  ine."  The  wail  did  not  go  unanswered.  In  Great 
Britain  the  use  of  the  word  "  butterine  "  to  indicate  the 
substitute  for  butter  became  rigorously  prohibited.  Other 
countries  in  Europe  followed  suit,  adding  additional  stipula- 
tions to  meet  individual  requirements.  Only  one  country 
among  the  leading  nations  of  to-day  permits  the  use  of 
this  controversial  word,  and  that  is  the  United  States  of 
America. 

In  Denmark,  which  is  one  of  the  leading  butter-producing 
countries,  the  substitute  must  not  be  coloured  to  resemble 
butter ;  it  must  retain  its  natural  white  appearance .  But  the 
colouring  matter  is  sold  separately,  so  that  the  Frau  may 
"  fake  "  the  substance  before  placing  it  upon  the  table.  In 
Great  Britain  it  may  be  coloured,  but  it  must  not  contain 
more  than  10  per  cent,  of  genuine  butter-fat.  In  Germany 
it  must  contain  a  certain  proportion  of  sesamum  oil,  which 
is  readily  revealed  under  analytic  investigations,  while  in 
Belgium,  for  the  same  purpose,  a  small  quantity  of  starch 
must  be  added.  Consequently  the  nefariously  inclined  to 
adulteration  are  offered  no  opportunity  to  defraud. 


THE  OIL  INVASION  OF  THE  TABLE  211 

Rigorous  legislative  action  demanded  the  evolution  of  a 
new  generic  name  for  the  artificial  article,  and,  as  a  result  of 
considerable  discussion,  the  word  "  margarine  "  was  ac- 
cepted, and  is  used  to  this  day  in  Europe  to  indicate  any 
form  of  artificial  butter. 

One  may  wonder  how  such  a  name  as  "  margarine  "  came 
to  be  evolved  to  meet  the  situation.  The  explanation  is 
simple.  The  product  of  Mouries'  ingenuity  possessed  a 
texture  which  under  the  microscope  was  observed  to  be 
formed  of  globules .  They  glittered  like  pearls .  This  feature 
readily  indicated  the  fact  that  the  article  was  artificially 
produced  from  animal  fats.  Forthwith  it  was  decided  to 
christen  the  article  according  to  its  outstanding  characteristic. 
In  this  way  it  would  be  possible  to  dispute  the  contention  of 
the  dairy  farmers  that  "  passing  off  "  was  being  practised. 
The  Greek  word  "  margarites,"  meaning  a  "  pearl,"  offered  a 
way  out  of  the  dilemma,  and  accordingly  the  word  now  in 
vogue  was  created.  It  fitted  the  situation  to  a  nicety.  No 
one,  not  even  the  most  antagonistic,  could  possibly  construe 
a  similarity  between  the  two  titles,  so  that  all  possibility  of 
fraudulent  dealing  was  removed. 

In  a  way  it  was  an  unhappy  name,  because  it  stamps  the 
synthetic  product  unequivocably  as  a  substitute,  and  does 
not  indicate  any  apparent  relationship  to  butter.  Moreover, 
it  was  responsible  for  the  creation  of  considerable  and  deep- 
rooted  prejudice,  fostered  by  the  butter  industry,  which  has 
not  been  overcome  completely  to  this  day. 

Notwithstanding  the  vehement  antagonism  of  the  vested 
interests,  the  discovery  of  Mege  Mouries  made  a  wide  appeal 
not  only  among  the  poorer  classes  of  France,  but  among 
those  of  other  countries.  Its  consumption  increased  by 
leaps  and  bounds,  despite  the  numerous  and  emphatic 
drawbacks  attending  its  manufacture  and  its  liability  to 
rancidity.  The  butter  manufacturing  industry,  elated  with 
its  legislative  success,  spared  no  effort  to  decry  its  competitor. 
In  rural  districts  especially  margarine  was  described  con- 
temptuously by  its  opponents  as  "  glorified  cart-grease,"  a 
term  which  has  not  yet  disappeared  entirely,  notwithstanding 


212          THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

the  huge  strides  that  have  been  made  in  the  manufacture  of 
the  article. 

The  opposition  of  the  butter  interests  did  not  perturb 
those  concerned  in  the  production  of  the  wholesome  sub- 
stitute. Rather  it  spurred  them  to  further  effort  to  make 
an  article  which  would  be  as  like  as  possible  to  butter,  which 
would  be  quite  as  wholesome  and  nutritious,  and  would  be 
above  suspicion  in  regard  to  purity.  Patient  chemical 
research,  experiment,  and  improved  chemical  contrivances 
eliminated  the  inherent  defects  in  margarine  one  by  one. 
Money  was  expended  lavishly  upon  scientific  knowledge  and 
endeavour,  with  the  result  that  at  the  moment  the  ordinary 
individual  cannot  detect  margarine  from  dairy-churned 
butter;  the  analyst  alone  is  able  to  tell  the  difference.  It  is 
legislative  action  and  activity  solely  which  now  prevent 
imposition  and  fraud  among  those  tradesmen  who  are  so 
inclined. 

The  prosperity  of  the  margarine  industry  in  time  became 
dependent  upon  the  stock-yards  and  meat-packing  industry 
of  Chicago.  Consequently,  in  due  course  oleo  became  a 
cornered  article.  There  was  a  ready  market  for  the  animal 
fats  in  Europe,  Holland  becoming  one  of  the  largest  buyers 
of  this  commodity .  In  the  neighbouring  country,  Denmark, 
the  synthetic  industry  has  been  fostered  to  such  a  degree 
that  to-day  it  is  probably  the  largest  manufacturer  of  the 
basic  constituent  of  margarine,  and  of  the  complete  article, 
in  the  world.  But  here  again  it  was  decided  at  all  costs  to 
maintain  the  integrity  of  the  Danish  dairy  butter,  which  has 
a  world-wide  reputation.  So  the  export  of  margarine  was 
prohibited  by  the  Danish  Government.  A  curious  situation 
has  been  created  in  Denmark  as  a  result  of  this  legislative 
action.  The  farmer  concentrates  his  energy  upon  the  manu- 
facture of  butter  for  export.  He  himself  lives  on  margarine, 
which  is  quite  as  good,  but  is  only  half  the  price.  In  this 
manner  a  greater  quantity  of  dairy-butter  is  released  for 
export— that  which  the  farmer  would  consume  were  the 
substitute  not  available. 

The  increasing  popularity  and  consumption  of  margarine 


THE  OIL  INVASION  OF  THE  TABLE  213 

in  time  brought  its  peculiar  crisis.  Animal  fats,  suited  to 
the  needs  of  the  industry,  are  limited  in  number.  Conse- 
quently, when  the  stock-yards  of  Chicago  experienced  a 
shortage  of  cattle  and  the  price  of  meat  rose,  the  cost  of  the 
oleo  rose  proportionately,  until  at  last  it  attained  a  pro- 
hibitive figure.  Demand  being  far  in  advance  of  supply,  it 
became  necessary  to  search  for  another  medium  to  take  the 
place  of  animal  oleo — to  find,  as  it  were,  a  substitute  for  the 
substitute. 

This  contingency  had  been  anticipated  by  two  keen,  far- 
seeing,  and  enterprising  British  industrialists,  Messrs.  Loder 
and  Petty.  They  were  in  partnership,  and  at  the  time  were 
interested  in  the  margarine  industry,  as  well  as  the  supply 
of  suitable  oils  and  fats  for  soap  manufacture.  To  them  it 
was  obvious  that  experiments  and  investigations  would  have 
to  be  conducted  with  fats  derived  outside  the  animal  king- 
dom to  relieve  the  situation  which  had  become  critical. 
They  turned  to  the  vegetable  world  as  a  possible  source  of 
oleo  supply.  Mr.  Francis  William  Loder  threw  his  whole 
energies  into  the  quest.  At  that  time  the  firm  with  which 
he  was  associated  was  supplying  considerable  quantities  of 
cocoanut  oil  for  soap  production,  and  naturally,  being  con- 
versant with  the  chemical  qualities  and  peculiar  properties 
of  this  oil,  he  was  convinced  that  oleo  could  be  obtained 
therefrom.  Forthwith  he  set  out  to  adapt  it  to  the  pro- 
duction of  margarine.  This  was  in  the  early  eighties,  when 
the  current  facilities  and  knowledge  of  the  subject  were  in 
their  infancy.  But  his  self-imposed  task  appeared  to  baffle 
solution.  Two  serious  obstacles  stood  in  his  way — the 
peculiar  distinctive  taste,  and  the  pungent  aroma  of  the 
cocoanut.  Strive  how  he  would  he  could  not  eliminate  these 
defects,  and  their  presence  was  fatal.  It  was  not  until  1887 
— after  five  or  six  years  of  diligent  labour — that  he  met 
success,  though  at  a  heavy  price.  The  product  was  not 
completely  perfect,  but  it  was  marketable  for  certain  pur- 
poses. Naturally  he  was  elated  by  his  achievement;  for 
the  first  time  cocoanut  oil  had  been  made  edible,  a  rival  to 
animal  oleo  had  been  revealed. 


2i4         THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

At  that  time  the  comestible  value  of  cocoanut  oil  was 
not  appreciated.  Loder,  like  many  another  inventor, 
suffered  from  making  his  discovery  prematurely.  No  doubt 
the  slight  remaining  traces  of  taste  and  aroma  reacted 
against  the  commercial  application  of  the  commodity,  but 
this  attitude  was  primarily  due  to  the  fact  that  the  shortage 
of  animal  oleo  had  not  been  fully  experienced  at  the  time. 
The  outcome  was  a  bitter  disappointment  in  view  of  the 
large  sums  of  money  which  had  been  expended  upon  experi- 
ments. The  losses  were  so  great  that  the  business  was 
dissolved.  This  turn  of  events  did  not  alarm  the  British 
inventor;  he  continued  his  efforts  upon  his  own  initiative 
and  responsibility.  Perseverance  eventually  brought  its 
own  reward — an  absolutely  tasteless  and  flavourless  vege- 
table fat  similar  in  every  respect  to  animal  oleo. 

Everything  now  was  ready  for  manufacture  upon  an 
extensive  scale  directly  the  demand  for  the  article  developed. 
Loder  set  out  upon  a  campaign  of  unostentatious  education. 
He  laid  down  a  plant,  and  produced  the  material  upon  a 
small  scale.  He  introduced  it  to  his  customers,  but  they 
manifested  hostility,  keenly  resented  the  idea  of  using 
cocoanut  oil.  Undismayed  he  continued  his  work,  and 
finally  succeeded  in  inducing  the  biscuit,  chocolate,  toffee, 
and  general  confectionery  trades  to  adopt  his  vegetable 
product.  Shortly  after  commencing  manufacturing  opera- 
tions he  was  amazed  to  learn  that  his  former  partner,  who 
had  broken  away  from  the  firm  owing  to  differences  under 
this  head,  had  embraced  the  idea,  although  he  was  confronted 
with  the  same  obstacles  which  had  worried  Loder  himself  for 
such  a  long  time. 

But  the  British  inventor's  work  had  not  been  in  vain. 
The  measure  of  success  he  had  achieved  and  his  broad  lines 
of  operation  had  leaked  out.  Continental  experimenters 
were  attracted  to  the  problem,  and  within  a  few  months 
there  were  numerous  workers  of  all  nationalities  engaged 
upon  one  common  line  of  investigation.  Fortunately  Loder 
had  the  advantage  of  a  good  start.  He  was  actually  manu- 
facturing the  substance  while  his  contemporaries  were 


THE  OIL  INVASION  OF  THE  TABLE  215 

struggling  with  the  difficulties  which  he  had  subjugated 
years  previously.  This  start  proved  too  pronounced  to  be 
overtaken  by  the  toilers  in  Germany,  Belgium,  France, 
Denmark,  Austria,  Norway,  and  Russia — the  United  States 
of  America  manifested  an  indifferent  attitude  towards  the 
problem  because  the  economic  issue  had  not  developed  in 
that  country.  When  Loder  died  and  Petty  retired  from 
business,  their  successors  came  together  once  more,  recom- 
bined  forces,  and  laid  the  foundations  of  what  to-day  is  the 
largest  and  most  successful  British  organization  engaged  in 
the  refining  of  oleo  from  cocoanuts  essentially  for  the  mar- 
garine industry. 

Although  the  distinction  of  having  discovered  the  means 
of  preparing  an  edible  base  for  artificial  butter  from  the 
cocoanut  is  undeniably  British,  the  French  were  not  far 
behind.  Messrs.  Rocca,  Tassey,  and  de  Roux,  of  Marseilles, 
took  up  this  line  of  study.  They  broadly  followed  Loder's 
principles,  and  in  1895  perfected  a  process  for  the  production 
of  what  they  call  "  vegetaline  "  from  a  cocoanut  derivative. 
Partly  from  the  peculiar  conditions  prevailing  in  France, 
where  margarine  is  in  heavy  demand,  and  partly  from  the 
assistance  extended  by  fiscal  considerations,  this  firm  was 
able  to  establish  the  young  industry  upon  a  firm  basis,  and 
to-day  probably  possesses  the  largest  cocoanut-oil  refining 
plant  in  the  world.  Its  success  completely  changed  the 
economical  aspect  of  the  French  colonies,  where  cocoanuts 
thrive  luxuriantly,  and  which  hitherto  had  been  considered 
as  of  little  commercial  value.  These  abundant  reserves  of 
raw  material  enabled  the  French  industry  to  forge  ahead  by 
leaps  and  bounds. 

Meantime  the  British  firm  had  progressed  slowly  but 
surely,  although  confronted  by  the  formidable  opponents 
prejudice,  ignorance,  and  conservatism.  Cocoanut  oil  at 
first  was  received  with  indifference.  The  artificial  butter, 
confectionery,  and  biscuit  industries  could  hardly  bring 
themselves  to  use  an  article  which  formerly  had  been 
restricted  to  soap  manufacture.  But  the  hesitation  of  the 
older  firms  gave  the  younger  rivals  a  great  opportunity, 


216         THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

which  they  did  not  permit  to  pass.  They  took  up  the  cocoa- 
nut  oil  readily,  because  experience  revealed  that  i  pound 
of  this  oil  goes  twice  as  far  as  the  material  generally  used, 
while  it  is  50  per  cent,  cheaper.  This  75  per  cent,  advantage 
gave  them  a  powerful  lever,  and  enabled  them  to  establish  a 
footing  upon  the  market  with  their  specialities  which  other- 
wise would  have  been  impossible.  Business  grew  rapidly, 
and  finally  forced  the  older  and  entrenched  rivals  to  adopt 
the  same  basic  material .  The  public  failed  to  detect  whether 
a  biscuit  or  a  bar  of  chocolate  was  made  from  cocoanut  oil 
or  from  the  articles  which  it  superseded ;  chemical  analysis 
alone  could  reveal  the  truth.  Consequently  to-day  cocoanut 
oil  has  a  large  consumption  in  the  preparation  of  biscuits, 
toffees,  chocolate,  and  general  confectionery,  although  the 
quantity  used  for  the  production  of  margarine  for  table 
consumption  greatly  exceeds  its  other  uses. 

Directly  the  new  article  secured  a  firm  hold  in  the  fore- 
going industries,  another  interesting  development  happened. 
Hitherto  in  the  manufacture  of  chocolate  the  cocoa-bean  had 
been  used  exclusively.  As  every  housewife  knows,  this  bean 
contains  a  heavy  proportion  of  rich  fat,  and  in  the  production 
of  chocolates  this  is  derived  in  large  quantities,  being  known 
as  cocoa-butter.  The  leading  chocolate  manufacturers 
hitherto  had  been  able  to  dispose  of  this  butter  at  a  remunera- 
tive figure,  but  cocoanut  oil  threatened  this  source  of  income 
seriously.  Stimulated  by  the  success  which  had  attended 
the  farmers'  agitation  years  previously,  when  margarine  first 
appeared  upon  the  scene  under  the  name  of  "  butterine," 
these  powerful  interests  endeavoured  to  bring  about  the 
proscription  of  cocoanut  oil  in  the  manufacture  of  choco- 
lates. But  this  time  the  movement  failed ;  cocoanut  oil  had 
secured  too  firm  a  hold  upon  the  public,  and  as  nothing 
detrimental  could  be  argued  legitimately  against  it,  agitation 
proved  unavailing. 

At  this  juncture  Mr.  Francis  H.  Loder  and  his  brother,  the 
sons  of  the  inventor,  played  a  master-stroke.  There  was 
the  possibility  of  the  cocoanut  and  the  cocoa-bean  becoming 
confused ;  the  uninitiated  might  possibly  consider  them  to  be 


a  J 


»    11 


THE  OIL  INVASION  OF  THE  TABLE  217 

one  and  the  same,  although  they  are  vastly  dissimilar.  To 
avoid  such  a  contretemps,  and  to  frustrate  any  surreptitious 
belittling  of  the  prime  product,  the  elimination  of  the 
final  "a"  in  connection  with  nut-oil  was  advocated. 
The  significance  of  the  suggestion  being  apparent,  it  was 
universally  adopted,  which  explains  the  present  spelling  of 
the  word  "  coconut  "  to  distinguish  it  from  the  "cocoa  "- 
bean. 

A  quarter  of  a  century  ago  the  coco-nut  palm  was  regarded 
somewhat  as  a  superfluity  upon  a  tropical  seaside  estate,  or 
was  retained  merely  for  decorative  purposes,  while  the  fruit 
was  considered  to  be  suitable  merely  for  an  Aunt  Sally 
at  fairs.  What  a  contrast  to  its  position  to-day  !  At  least 
seventy  different  trades  are  dependent  upon  this  nut.  Now 
it  is  carefully  nursed,  and  is  raised  upon  scientific  lines,  as 
if  it  were  a  valuable  exotic  plant  flourishing  in  a  British  or 
American  conservatory.  But  the  cultivation  of  the  palm 
is  by  no  means  easy.  It  demands  a  peculiar  soil  and  a 
seaside  situation  in  a  suitable  tropical  clime.  It  will  not 
thrive  except  within  some  600  feet  of  the  water .  It  flou  rishes 
most  luxuriantly  and  bears  most  prolifically  in  a  climate 
which,  generally  speaking,  is  by  no  means  congenial  to  the 
white  man.  Its  growth  is  comparatively  slow.  Eight  years 
pass  before  the  young  tree  yields  a  single  nut,  and  fifteen 
years  elapse  before  full  bearing  is  attained.  Again,  the 
number  of  white  men  who  are  familiar  with  its  cultivation 
is  extremely  limited ;  those  who  are  prepared  to  spend  their 
whole  lives  in  its  habitat  are  still  more  difficult  to  find. 
Consequently  while  coco-nut  raising  constitutes  one  of  the 
most  attractive  and  financially  remunerative  callings  of  the 
moment  it  is  also  one  of  the  greatest  gambles.  It  is  essen- 
tially an  occupation  for  the  specialist,  while  the  financing  of 
such  operations  must  be  carried  out  with  extreme  circum- 
spection. 

The  coconut  boom  set  in  during  the  year  1909,  and 
spread  with  the  characteristic  speed  and  virulence  of  such 
crazes.  Unlike  the  majority  of  such  sporadic  outbursts,  it 
lasted  three  years,  when  it  subsided  somewhat.  Prices 


218          THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

soared  to  an  abnormal  figure,  and  speculation  went  mad. 
The  boom  served  to  emphasize  the  possibilities  of  coconut 
oil  upon  the  man  in  the  street,  enhanced  its  favour  and 
popularity.  Finally,  the  price  of  the  raw  coconut  kernel, 
or  "  copra,"  as  it  is  commercially  called,  attained  a  figure 
which  rendered  its  commercial  use  for  margarine  purposes 
impossible ;  the  cost  of  production  approached  that  of  animal 
fats. 

The  market  value  of  the  raw  material  varies  according  to 
the  fatty  content  of  the  flesh  of  the  nut.  The  primest 
qualities  of  copra  are  derived  from  Ceylon,  and  consequently 
are  the  most  in  demand,  though  other  countries,  notably 
Malabar  and  Cochin  China,  yield  high  quality  nuts. 

The  process  of  refining  the  oil  is  a  secret.  The  essence 
of  the  invention  was  the  perfection  of  ways  and  means  of 
removing  every  trace  of  the  peculiar  coconut  flavour  and 
aroma  from  the  oil.  Each  firm  engaged  in  the  industry 
follows  its  individual  method  of  refining,  and  is  extremely 
reticent  concerning  its  particular  process.  This  attitude  is 
perfectly  justifiable  when  one  remembers  the  large  sums 
of  money  which  have  been  expended  in  perfecting  manu- 
facture. 

Through  the  courtesy  of  Messrs.  Loder  and  Nucoline,  the 
British  pioneers  in  this  particular  trade,  I  am  able  to  describe 
briefly  the  various  stages  through  which  the  coconut  is 
passed  to  yield  the  desired  product.  The  word  "  oil  "  is 
scarcely  accurate,  because  one  generally  associates  such  with 
a  more  or  less  fluid  substance,  whereas  this  product  is  hard 
and  firm,  resembling  frozen  butter  very  closely,  though  of  a 
different  texture,  and  void  of  any  trace  of  its  oleaginous 
character  under  normal  temperature  conditions.  Conse- 
quently coconut  fat  or  coconut  butter  would  be  a  more 
fitting  description.  The  mechanical  processes  through 
which  the  material  passes  are  elaborate  in  character,  demand- 
ing an  extensive  and  expensive  plant.  This  is  probably  one 
reason  why  so  few  firms  are  engaged  in  this  peculiar  field  of 
activity. 

The  coconut,  or  copra,  arrives  at  the  factory  in  a  dried. 


THE  OIL  INVASION  OF  THE  TABLE  219 

brittle  condition.  The  nuts,  gathered  upon  the  plantations, 
are  broken  open,  and  the  kernel,  with  the  white  flesh  of 
which  one  is  familiar,  is  extracted  and  exposed  to  dry  in  the 
sun.  One  might  think  that  the  flesh  would  decompose, 
but  this  is  not  the  case.  The  fierce  tropical  solar  heat  com- 
pletes the  work  of  evaporating  the  superfluous  moisture 
from  the  kernel  within  a  very  short  time,  and  preserves  the 
copra  from  decomposition.  The  shrivelled  brittle  flesh  is 
then  packed  in  bags  for  export.  In  this  condition  the 
fatty  content  of  the  nut  is  approximately  65  per  cent., 
though  this  is  a  variable  quantity,  fluctuating  with  the 
country  in  which  the  nut  is  raised. 

In  its  raw  condition  the  copra  has  a  decidedly  uninviting 
appearance.  It  is  certainly  far  from  appetizing,  being 
associated  with  sand  and  other  extraneous  substances,  but 
its  peculiar  pungent  aroma  betrays  it.  On  arrival  at  the 
mills  the  contents  of  the  bags  are  emptied  into  a  large 
hopper,  where  the  copra  is  fed  through  a  machine,  which 
cuts  it  into  short  shavings  somewhat  similar  to  those 
obtained  when  planing  a  piece  of  wood  across  the  grain. 
Conveyors  pick  up  this  shredded  nut,  and  dump  it  into 
capacious  kettles,  where  it  undergoes  a  preliminary  heating. 
Below  the  kettles  are  disposed  huge  grinding  mills,  into 
which  the  shavings  fall  in  continuous  streams  to  pass  between 
sets  of  grooved  rollers.  The  latter  are  of  varying  form. 
Those  in  the  first  mill  are  grooved  broadly,  while  those  where 
the  nut  is  subjected  to  its  final  grinding  are  considerably 
finer.  The  "  meal  "  is  then  fed  into  presses  in  which  the 
greater  proportion  of  the  oil  is  expressed  to  fall  into  troughs, 
and  to  be  conducted  through  sluices  into  large  settling 
tanks. 

Although  the  grinding  plant  is  highly  efficient  and  the 
work  is  carried  out  thoroughly,  the  whole  of  the  available 
oil  is  not  thus  extracted  from  the  copra.  So  the  nut,  now 
resembling  a  pulp,  has  to  be  subjected  to  a  final  pressing. 
It  is  imperative  that  the  maximum  yield  of  oil  shall  be 
obtained,  and  when  it  is  stated  that  about  94  per  cent,  of 
the  fatty  content  of  the  nut  is  secured,  some  idea  of 


220          THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

the  complete  character  of  the  oil  extraction  process  may  be 
gathered. 

The  types  of  presses  differ  in  various  mills.  Some  are 
equipped  with  rotating  rollers  which  exercise  a  grinding 
action;  in  others  the  press  is  of  the  flat  plate  hydraulic 
type.  The  pulverized  flesh  is  disposed  in  layers  between 
plates,  and  when  the  press  has  been  fully  charged  the  ram 
is  released.  It  has  a  vertical  action,  and  its  movement  is 
so  slow  as  to  be  imperceptible  to  the  naked  eye.  The  pulp 
is  subjected  to  a  squeezing  pressure  of  5,000  pounds  per 
square  inch.  Visible  indications  of  the  tremendous  pressure 
exerted  are  shown  by  the  continuous  streams  of  oil  which 
exude  from  between  the  plates,  and  likewise  fall  into  sluices 
and  pass  to  the  settling  tanks.  When  the  ram  has  com- 
pleted its  upward  movement,  and  the  last  drop  of  oil  has 
been  extracted,  the  piston  is  released.  The  pulp  is  now  in 
the  form  of  highly  compressed  hard  slabs  or  cakes,  about 
an  inch  in  thickness,  some  18  inches  long  by  12  inches  in 
width,  somewhat  resembling  wholemeal  bread  in  colour. 

A  few  years  ago  this  cake  commanded  no  commercial 
value  whatever.  Although  it  is  highly  nutritious,  contains 
6  per  cent,  of  oil  as  well  as  the  cooked  fibrous  and  fleshy 
parts  of  the  nut,  and  forms  a  valuable  cattle-food,  the 
farmers  regarded  it  with  disdain.  Oil-cake  was  their  staple 
foodstuff  for  stock,  and  they  would  have  none  other.  But 
coconut  cake  is  every  whit  as  good,  if  not  superior  to  that 
made  from  linseed  and  cottonseed.  Consequently,  the  dis- 
posal of  this  residue  raised  a  difficult  problem,  especially 
in  such  a  factory  as  the  above,  where  several  hundred  tons 
of  copra  are  passed  through  the  plant  every  week.  At 
last  one  or  two  prominent  fanners  were  induced  to  give  the 
coconut  cake  a  trial.  They  were  completely  satisfied  with 
the  results.  The  suitability  of  the  foodstuff  for  stock  be- 
coming noised  around,  a  heavy  demand  set  in  therefor. 
To-day  the  outcry  for  this  cake,  like  that  of  the  oil,  exceeds 
the  supply. 

The  oil  is  permitted  to  settle  and  cool.  In  this  form  it 
is  yellowish-white  in  colour,  although  soft.  This  is  due  to 


THE  OIL  INVASION  OF  THE  TABLE  221 

the  fat  containing  a  certain  amount  of  acidity,  which  is 
useless  for  margarine  purposes.  Consequently  the  next 
step  is  the  elimination  of  this  constituent.  This  residue, 
it  may  be  mentioned,  forms  one  of  the  basic  constituents 
of  soap. 

The  next  stage  of  the  process  is  the  removal  of  the  aroma 
and  taste  which  is  carried  out  in  enormous  stills.  When 
it  comes  over  the  character  of  the  oil  has  completely  changed. 
No  one,  except  from  analysis,  could  possibly  associate  it 
with  the  coconut:  every  trace  of  colour,  taste,  and  odour 
has  vanished. 

Coconut  oil  as  a  rule  is  manufactured  in  two  or  three 
grades.  One  is  utilized  for  biscuit-making,  another  for 
margarine,  and  the  third  for  the  highest  qualities  of  choco- 
lates and  confectionery.  The  best  grade  is  somewhat  ex- 
pensive, since  it  may  command  as  much  as  £60  ($300)  or 
more  per  ton.  It  is  packed  also  in  a  variety  of  forms, 
according  to  destination  and  the  purposes  for  which  it  is 
intended.  It  may  be  run  into  huge  barrels,  and  there  per- 
mitted to  set,  being  withdrawn  by  knocking  in  the  head  of 
the  cask ;  packed  in  tin-lined  wooden  cases ;  or  even  wrapped 
carefully  in  small  cakes. 

One  great  feature  of  coconut  oil — and  this  is  a  point 
which  has  much  influenced  its  widespread  utilization — is 
that  it  is  free  from  rancidity,  will  keep  for  an  indefinite 
period  under  normal  conditions,  and  may  be  transported 
without  suffering  deterioration.  A  sample  from  every  still 
is  preserved,  and  some  of  these  are  ten  or  twelve  years  old. 
Yet  to-day  the  oil  appears  as  if  it  had  been  refined  only  just 
recently,  and  as  it  contains  nothing  susceptible  to  decom- 
position, its  age  cannot  possibly  be  detected  either  by  the 
palate  or  smell.  It  may  be  passed  through  the  torrid  and 
frigid  zones  without  anxiety,  and  does  not  require  to  be 
kept  in  a  chilled  temperature.  Although  the  demand  at 
home  is  heavy  for  this  margarine  base  and  butter  substitute, 
a  large  proportion  of  the  output  is  despatched  to  foreign 
markets — Canada,  South  America,  India,  Japan,  Africa, 
and  Australasia  are  heavy  buyers — the  various  civilized 


222         THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

countries  evidently  having  become  keenly  alive  to  the  manu- 
facturing possibilities  of  this  edible  oil. 

The  United  States  is  probably  the  smallest  consumer  and 
producer  of  this  butter  substitute.  No  doubt  this  is  because 
the  dairy-butter  industry  is  conducted  upon  an  extensive 
and  scientific  scale.  The  butter-canning  interests  also  con- 
stitute a  formidable  and  successful  competitor.  Some  years 
ago  Mr.  Francis  H.  Loder  went  to  New  York  and  established 
a  factory.  At  first  it  proved  an  exceedingly  difficult  task 
to  force  coconut  oil  upon  the  market,  as  it  was  brought  into 
spirited  competition  with  butter  and  animal  fat  substitutes. 
Persistent  action  finally  introduced  it  to  the  biscuit,  toffee, 
chocolate,  and  confectionery  manufacturers.  Although  the 
United  States  to-day  is  far  behind  the  other  countries  of 
the  world  in  extending  commercial  recognition  to  this  latest 
achievement  of  science,  coconut  oil  is  rapidly  gaining  ground 
and  favour. 

It  is  probable  that  within  a  few  years  wider  recognition 
will  be  extended  to  the  article,  when  manufacture  will  have 
to  be  conducted  on  a  far  more  comprehensive  scale  than 
prevails  at  present,  in  order  to  meet  the  demand,  since  the 
United  States,  with  its  population  approaching  100,000,000 
souls,  offers  a  huge  market  for  the  commodity.  The  out- 
look is  particularly  attractive,  owing  to  the  alarming  de- 
crease in  stock-raising,  which  must  cause  dairy  products  to 
rise  in  price.  Directly  this  tendency  develops  to  an  acute 
degree,  coconut  oil  is  certain  to  come  into  its  own  in  the 
United  States,  as  it  has  in  the  older  countries  of  Europe. 


CHAPTER    XVII 
BUTTER  FROM  OIL 

WHILE  the  production  of  an  edible,  odourless,  and  flavour- 
less oil  from  a  vegetable  derivative,  as  narrated  in  the 
previous  chapter,  is  one  notable  conquest  of  science,  the 
construction  of  a  synthetic  butter  upon  this  base  is  no  less 
remarkable.  When  it  is  recalled  that  the  artificial  article 
differs  in  no  respect  from  that  obtained  from  the  milk  of  the 
cow,  that  it  is  equally  nutritious  and  wholesome,  that  it 
possesses  all  the  essential  qualities  of  the  animal  product, 
and  that  no  one  but  the  analyst  is  able  to  distinguish  the 
difference,  then  it  must  be  conceded  that  a  striking  triumph 
has  been  accomplished.  One  may  cherish  the  idea  that  one 
has  never  tasted  "  margarine,"  that  it  never  appears  upon 
one's  table,  and  that  one  would  never  think  of  eating  it. 
But  that  is  a  false  expression  of  security.  Margarine  appears 
upon  the  epicurean  table  of  the  millionaire  in  some  disguise 
or  other  as  much  as  it  does  in  its  confessedly  unblushing 
condition  upon  the  humble  table  of  the  working  man.  The 
former  is  deceived;  the  latter  is  not,  because  he  is  fully 
aware  of  the  nature  of  the  article.  What  is  more  to  the 
point,  the  working  man  prefers  margarine  to  ordinary 
butter,  not  because  it  is  cheaper,  but  because  it  is  not  a 
victim  of  probable  adulteration.  He  depends  upon  mar- 
garine the  livelong  day,  and  enjoys  it;  the  millionaire  shud- 
ders at  the  name  of  the  substitute,  but  in  ignorance  he 
partakes  of  his  share  of  the  disguised  article. 

In  these  islands  the  consumption  of  margarine  is  enor- 
mous.   In  fact,  the  popular  appreciation  of  the  article  is  so 
pronounced  that  this  country  eats  twice  as  much  of  it  to-day 
as  it  did  seven  years  ago.     It  is  displacing  other  fats  used 
223 


224         THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

essentially  in  culinary  and  food-manufacturing  operations, 
because  it  is  cheaper  and  more  economical,  and  last,  but  not 
least,  because  it  is  of  unassailable  purity.  In  the  other 
European  countries  the  displacement  of  the  genuine  by  the 
artificial  is  equally  startling.  In  the  United  States  the 
consumption  is  far  below  that  of  the  Old  World,  but  this 
is  due  to  the  enterprise  and  energy  of  the  dairy -butter  in- 
terests, although,  from  the  dietetic  point  of  view,  the 
American  consumes  a  far  inferior  article,  notwithstanding 
that  it  is  made  from  the  milk  of  the  cow.  Still,  the  con- 
sumption of  the  United  States,  even  for  domestic  purposes, 
is  increasing  rapidly.  In  Great  Britain  the  margarine  ranks 
as  a  most  successful  and  prosperous  industry.  One  British 
firm — Otto  Monsted,  Limited — produce  no  fewer  than 
3,000,000  pounds  of  margarine,  or  "nut-butter,"  as  it  is 
called,  from  the  nut-oil  base,  per  week,  and  this  enormous 
output  is  so  far  below  the  demand  that  not  a  pound  is 
available  for  export. 

The  romantic  circumstances  which  brought  about  the 
discovery  of  margarine  by  Me"ge  Mouries  is  related  in  the 
previous  chapter  (XVI.).  The  foundation  of  the  Monsted 
organization  is  quite  as  romantic:  it  is  one  of  the  most 
fascinating  and  interesting  stories  of  human  endeavour. 
The  warm  reception  the  invention  received  from  the  humbler 
classes  of  the  community  in  France  naturally  attracted  the 
attention  of  other  countries.  The  working  populations 
were  attracted  by  the  possibility  of  living  cheaper,  and 
forthwith  the  invention  was  taken  up  eagerly.  In  time  it 
reached  Denmark,  which  is  essentially  a  butter-producing 
country. 

One  young  man,  Otto  Monsted,  in  common  with  hundreds 
of  his  fellow-countrymen,  was  engaged  in  dairy -butter 
making,  although  his  operations  were  conducted  upon  a  far 
from  impressive  scale.  Margarine  claimed  his  attention, 
and,  perhaps,  being  a  little  more  perspicacious  than  his 
comrades,  he  devoted  more  than  a  passing  interest  upon  the 
invention.  He  foresaw  the  day  when  the  demand  for  dairy 
butter  would  exceed  the  supply,  because  the  raising  of  suit- 


BUTTER  FROM  OIL  225 

able  stock,  even  at  that  time,  was  dwindling  rapidly.  He 
conjectured  that  within  a  few  years  the  working  man  would 
be  compelled,  by  force  of  circumstances,  to  abandon  the 
consumption  of  prime  butter  and  be  content  with  an  inferior 
adulterated  article. 

Accordingly,  he  decided  to  abandon  the  dairy  butter 
trade,  and  to  set  out  upon  the  manufacture  of  margarine. 
He  realized  the  enormous  difficulties  that  loomed  before 
him:  that  his  material  would  have  to  compare  with  the 
genuine  article  in  what  is  undoubtedly  the  most  hypercritical 
country  in  the  world  in  regard  to  dairy  products.  But  he 
was  not  dismayed.  He  laid  down  the  lines  upon  which  he 
was  resolved  to  go  forward,  and  he  adhered  to  them  rigidly. 
The  result  was  that  in  a  very  short  time  "  Monsted's  Mar- 
garine "  became  a  household  word;  the  butter-raisers  who 
previously  had  ridiculed  the  idea  that  a  synthetic  W&tter 
comparable  with  the  real  article  ever  could  be  manufactured 
upon  a  commercial  scale  at  a  competitive  price  extended 
him  tangible  support  by  purchasing  his  product. 

In  the  course  of  a  few  years,  however,  Monsted  realized 
that  there  were  limits  to  development  in  his  homeland — 
that  he  would  have  to  dispose  of  his  wares  in  other  countries 
offering  a  wider  market.  He  decided  to  try  his  fortune  in 
the  British  Isles.  In  this  resolution  he  was  stimulated  by 
the  attitude  of  the  Danish  Government  towards  the  artificial 
substance.  He  came  to  England  to  search  for  a  suitable 
manufacturing  establishment.  An  abandoned  hat-factory 
at  Godley,  near  Hyde,  Cheshire,  could  be  adapted  to  his 
requirements,  and  accordingly  was  acquired.  The  neces- 
sary alterations  were  carried  out,  and  the  requisite  plant 
was  installed.  On  April  15,  1889,  the  churns  were  set  to 
work.  It  was  a  modest  commencement,  the  daily  output 
being  about  1,000  pounds.  But  the  "  Monsted  Margarine  " 
appealed  as  keenly  to  the  British  people  as  it  had  to  his 
fellow-countrymen  at  home.  The  demand  for  the  substance 
became  so  heavy  that  within  four  years,  although  the  factory 
had  been  rebuilt  and  enlarged,  more  extensive  works  were 
wanted.  Another  reconnaissance  of  the  country  was  made, 

15 


226         THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

and  finally  it  was  decided  to  purchase  a  vacant  stretch  of 
56  acres  of  land  adjoining  the  Great  Western  Railway  at 
Southall,  Middlesex,  in  close  proximity  to  the  Grand  Junc- 
tion Canal,  thereby  securing  adequate  rail  and  water  trans- 
portation facilities.  Here  a  modern  factory  was  raised  and 
brought  into  operation  in  March,  1895. 

The  successful  production  of  oil  from  nuts  gave  the  in- 
dustry a  tremendous  fillip,  and  within  a  year  or  two  even 
this  latest  factory  was  overtaxed,  rendering  further  additions 
and  extensions  absolutely  necessary  to  keep  pace  with 
orders.  The  growth  was  so  rapid  and  continuous  that  finally 
it  became  the  largest  individual  margarine  factory  in  the 
world,  which  distinction,  with  its  1,000  employes  and  out- 
put of  3,000,000  pounds  of  margarine  per  week,  it  still  holds. 
One  factor  was  revealed  speedily.  The  supply  of  copra, 
wherifce  the  nut  oil  is  produced,  was  somewhat  uncertain 
and  speculative.  To  insure  a  regular  supply  of  this  con- 
stituent, and  to  steady  prices,  it  was  decided  to  acquire 
coconut-palm  estates.  When  one  bears  in  mind  that  no 
fewer  than  500  tons  of  coconuts  are  required  to  produce 
the  volume  of  oil  which  this  factory  consumes  every  day, 
the  wisdom  of  this  step  is  apparent.  Extensive  coconut 
farms  were  purchased,  and  others  laid  out.  In  this  manner 
complete  control  of  the  situation  was  obtained,  and  a  supply 
of  over  1,500,000  coconuts  per  annum  assured.  While  the 
Otto  Monsted  Company  raises  such  enormous  quantities  of 
nuts,  it  does  not  depend  entirely  upon  its  own  resources. 
Immense  quantities  of  the  raw  vegetable  fats  are  purchased 
from  the  leading  manufacturers  of  the  commodity.  In 
fact,  to  guard  against  a  sudden  shortage  of  this  ingredient, 
no  fewer  than  6,000  huge  barrels  of  oil  are  held  in  hand  upon 
the  premises. 

The  process  of  manufacturing  nut  butter  is  one  of  extreme 
fascination.  It  demonstrates  the  skill  of  the  chemist  in  a 
striking  manner,  emphasizes  one  of  the  greatest  triumphs  of 
British  enterprise,  and  incidentally  illustrates  how  a  factory 
devoted  to  the  production  of  an  essential  foodstuff  should 
be  equipped  and  conducted  to  meet  the  exigencies  of  purity 


BUTTER  FROM  OIL  227 

and  cleanliness.  The  Otto  Monsted  factory  is  run  upon  a 
far  more  scientific  and  hygienic  basis  than  any  dairy-butter- 
making  organization  between  the  two  Poles.  Necessity  so 
compels.  A  deep-rooted  prejudice  against  the  artificial 
article  still  exists,  though  it  is  decreasing  in  virulence.  So 
to  overcome  this  feeling,  the  manufacturers  of  the  synthetic 
substance  spare  no  effort,  and  discountenance  no  expense, 
to  secure  a  position  in  advance  of  the  makers  of  the  article 
which  is  being  superseded.  On  all  sides  one  hears  and  reads 
of  the  lack  of  hygiene,  science,  and  care  manifested  in  the 
handling  of  milk  and  the  production  of  dairy  butter;  but 
one  looks  in  vain  for  a  similar  outcry  concerning  the  methods 
and  arrangements  practised  in  the  production  of  the  artificial 
article.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  latter  is  operated 
by  scientists  who  are  fully  alive  to  microbic  ravages  and  the 
dangers  of  adulteration,  while  the  dairy-butter  factory  is 
run  by  ignorance.  This  is  responsible  for  the  anomalous 
and  paradoxical  fact  that  the  artificial  is  purer  and  more 
immune  from  adulteration  than  the  genuine  substance. 

One  has  only  to  refer  to  official  statistics  to  realize  how 
serious  the  competition  between  butter  and  margarine  has 
grown.  To-day,  the  sale  of  lower-grade  butters  in  Great 
Britain  has  virtually  disappeared.  They  appealed  essen- 
tially to  the  poorer  classes  as  an  edible,  or  were  used  for 
culinary  purposes.  But  they  are  exceedingly  indifferent  for 
either  application.  On  the  other  hand,  nut  butter  is  whole- 
some and  nutritious,  while  it  has  the  advantage  of  being 
one-half  the  price  of  cheap  butter.  Consequently  it  has 
ousted  the  latter  from  the  market.  It  is  only  those  dairy 
butters  which  carry  a  full  guarantee  from  the  Government 
of  the  country  of  origin  which  are  able  to  command  a  sale. 
Even  some  of  these,  owing  to  the  activity  of  the  adulterator, 
are  regarded  with  suspicion. 

This  development  has  become  a  serious  matter  for  the 
British  Colonies,  in  many  of  which  dairy-butter  production 
plays  an  important  part,  and  some  of  which  still  labour 
under  the  delusion  that  anything,  so  long  as  it  is  labelled 
"  butter,"  will  suffice  for  the  Mother-Country.  But  they 


228         THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

are  making  a  huge  mistake.  The  working  man  is  the 
largest  consumer  in  both  the  cheap  butter  and  margarine 
markets,  and  consequently  governs  the  situation.  Nut 
butter  has  become  his  standard  of  comparison.  If  the  dairy 
article  is  superior,  he  gives  it  his  unstinted  support,  higher 
price  notwithstanding;  if  it  is  inferior,  as  it  is  at  present,  he 
refuses  to  accept  it. 

In  the  production  of  nut  butter  everything  depends  upon 
the  milk;  it  is  the  vital  constituent.  The  artificial  butter 
manufacturer  has  far  greater  control  over  this  article  than 
the  dairy-butter  maker.  The  purity  and  behaviour  of  the 
milk  is  checked  and  counter-checked  at  every  step  during 
the  process — from  the  farm  until  the  combination  with  the 
oil  has  been  completed.  An  elaborate  and  highly  trained 
organization  is  demanded  to  achieve  this  end,  and  this 
wonderful  control  is  the  sole  reason  for  the  striking  purity, 
wholesomeness,  and  nutritiousness  of  the  nut  butter.  The 
art,  like  the  refining  of  coconut  oil,  is  partly  a  secret,  because 
of  the  expense  that  has  been  incurred  in  devising  the  best 
ways  and  means  to  secure  the  desired  result.  Through  the 
courtesy  of  the  Otto  Monsted  Company,  I  have  been  able 
to  follow  the  production  through  all  its  stages.  This  firm 
possesses  the  most  up-to-date  and  interesting  nut  butter 
manufacturing  installation  in  the  world,  many  of  the  details 
of  which  have  been  involved,  designed,  or  suggested  by  the 
employe's  themselves. 

Nut  butter  is  composed  of  two  ingredients— milk  and  oil. 
The  production  of  the  latter  has  been  described,  so  I  will 
relate  the  treatment  of  the  milk  first.  To  meet  the  demands 
of  this  organization,  the  total  production  of  some  eighty 
farms  in  the  western  shires  of  England  is  required,  and  the 
milk  is  delivered  to  the  factory  by  rail,  in  the  familiar  churns, 
twice  daily— at  midnight  and  at  noon.  Some  idea  of  the 
enormous  quantity  of  milk  required  may  be  gathered  from 
the  fact  that  the  consumption  is  no  less  than  35,000  gallons 
weekly. 

Immediately  the  milk  arrives  it  is  subjected  to  tests,  to 
detect  whether  it  has  undergone  any  deterioration  during 


BUTTER  FROM  OIL  229 

transit,  and  also  to  ascertain  whether  it  has  suffered  adulter- 
ation by  the  addition  of  water  or  a  boric  preservative.  It 
is  stipulated  that  the  milk  shall  be  delivered  to  the  factory  in 
the  condition  in  which  it  is  drawn  from  the  cow.  Dilution 
impoverishes  its  composition,  as  may  be  imagined,  while 
the  addition  of  any  preservative  will  nullify  subsequent 
treatment.  There  is  an  expert  "  taster,"  as  in  the  tea  and 
other  industries,  who,  by  his  sensitive  and  cultivated  palate, 
can  tell  instantly  whether  the  milk  has  soured  at  all  since 
collection.  He  tastes  the  contents  of  every  churn. 

The  second  test  is  bacteriological.  A  sample  is  drawn 
indiscriminately  from  the  consignment  from  each  of  the 
eighty  farms,  and  taken  to  the  laboratory.  Within  a  few 
moments  the  chemist  is  able  to  pronounce  whether  the  milk 
has  been  subjected  to  tampering,  whether  the  farmer  has 
employed  clean  utensils,  or  has  handled  the  milk  properly 
while  it  is  in  his  hands.  The  milk,  immediately  it  is  drawn 
from  the  cow,  should  be  chilled.  As  is  well  known,  milk  is 
particularly  sensitive  and  attractive  to  germ  life.  The 
milking-pails  may  not  be  thoroughly  clean,  or  germs  may 
be  collected  from  the  atmosphere  as  the  milk  is  carried  about 
from  place  to  place.  If  the  milk  be  placed  in  the  churns 
directly,  this  germ  life  flourishes  and  multiplies,  but  if  the 
milk  be  subjected  to  the  preliminary  chilling,  all  microbic 
development  is  arrested;  the  germs  lie  dormant  for  several 
hours,  enabling  transit  to  be  completed  satisfactorily. 

Seeing  that  the  handling  of  the  milk  upon  the  farm  cannot 
possibly  be  controlled,  the  stringent  elaborate  investigation 
upon  its  arrival  at  the  factory  is  imperative.  The  farmer, 
knowing  that  his  product  cannot  escape  this  preliminary 
inspection,  spares  no  effort  to  maintain  the  prescribed  stan- 
dard of  purity.  Any  dereliction  in  his  duty,  which  can  be 
detected  instantly,  meets  with  its  just  reward — the  milk  is 
refused  and  thrown  upon  the  farmer's  hands.  This  is  a 
pecuniary  loss,  and  it  serves  to  make  him  extremely  careful, 
more  especially  when  he  knows  that  a  second  complaint  is 
likely  to  be  accompanied  by  the  termination  of  his  supply 
contract.  But,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  the  Western  farmer 


23o         THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

strives  hard  to  meet  requirements,  and  it  speaks  volumes 
for  his  honesty  and  care  to  learn  that  it  is  very  seldom 
indeed  that  a  consignment  is  refused,  and  even  then  unsuit- 
ability  is  attributable  to  circumstances  over  which  the  milk- 
raiser  has  no  control— such  as,  for  instance,  oppressive, 
thundery  weather,  which,  as  the  housewife  knows,  sours 
milk  very  quickly. 

Passing  the  tasting  and  bacteriological  tests,  the  milk  is 
turned  into  huge  tanks  and  pumped  to  the  top  of  the  build- 
ing, where  the  treatment  for  margarine  purposes  proper 
commences.  Now,  raw  milk  contains  from  3^  to  4  per  cent, 
of  butter-fat,  which  the  margarine  manufacturer  does  not 
want.  It  is  a  waste  product,  because  the  coconut  oil  is 
designed  to  take  its  place.  Consequently  the  butter-fat 
must  be  extracted.  The  milk  is  first  pasteurized  to  destroy 
all  inimical  germ  life.  Then  it  is  passed  through  electrically 
driven  milk  separators,  which  remove  the  butter-fat  from 
themilk.  The  butter-fat,  in  the  form  of  cream,  is  discharged 
into  one  tank,  and  the  separated  or  skim-milk  is  passed  into 
another  vessel. 

The  British  law  relating  to  the  sale  of  margarine  pro- 
hibits the  butter  to  be  manufactured  with  more  than  10  per 
cent,  of  butter-fat.  Under  these  circumstances,  there  is 
necessarily  a  considerable  surplus  of  butter-fat  produced 
from  the  volume  of  milk  handled,  either  in  the  form  of  cream 
or  butter,  which  has  to  be  sold  separately,  as  a  by-product 
to  dealers  in  these  articles. 

The  skim-milk  is  then  passed  over  a  cooler,  and  its  tem- 
perature reduced  to  freezing-point,  in  which  condition  it  is 
transferred  to  capacious  tanks,  where  the  low  temperature 
is  maintained  until  it  is  required  for  the  succeeding  stage. 
Everyone  is  aware  of  the  fact  that  milk  is  extremely  sus- 
ceptible to  decomposition  or  souring,  and  is  equally  sensitive 
to  contamination  from  dirt,  dust,  and  unclean  vessels. 
These  defects  are  fully  appreciated  in  this  establishment, 
and  consequently  no  effort  or  artifice  is  spared  to  maintain 
the  purity  of  the  article.  The  whole  of  the  milk  is  passed 
through  its  preliminary  stages,  and  consigned  in  its  skim 


BUTTER  FROM  OIL  231 

or  separated  form  to  the  chilled  reservoirs  without  any 
delay.  All  the  rooms  are  kept  spotlessly  clean,  and  so 
designed  and  constructed  that  the  walls,  ceilings,  and  floors 
may  be  washed  with  a  steam  jet  and  boiling  soda-water. 
Large  air-ducts  insure  ventilation  with  washed,  deodorized, 
and  cooled  air.  Every  room  in  which  the  milk  is  handled 
is  maintained  at  an  even  temperature,  irrespective  of  the 
time  of  year,  so  that  no  opportunity  is  given  for  injurious 
bacteria  to  enter  the  milk  at  any  of  its  stages.  Handling  is 
eliminated,  all  the  processes  being  carried  out  automatic- 
ally by  electrically  driven  mechanical  appliances.  In  fact, 
neither  the  oil  nor  the  milk  is  touched  by  hand  from  one  end 
of  the  process  to  the  other.  Directly  the  last  drop  of  milk 
has  passed  through  each  vessel,  the  latter  is  subjected  to  a 
powerful  steam- jet  cleansing  process,  and  is  scoured  thor- 
oughly with  boiling  soda-water.  This  applies  also  to  the 
churns,  which  are  returned  to  the  farms  in  a  spotless  condi- 
tion, ready  to  receive  the  next  consignment  of  milk. 

But,  it  may  be  asked,  why  should  milk  be  used  at  all  in 
the  manufacture  of  margarine,  when  its  essential  ingredient, 
the  butter-fat,  is  extracted  ?  The  explanation  is  simple. 
Margarine,  or  nut  butter,  in  order  to  be  an  effective  substi- 
tute for  the  dairy  product,  must  possess  the  peculiar  butter 
flavour,  so  as  to  appeal  to  the  palate.  This  peculiar  flavour 
can  only  be  imparted  by  the  milk.  To  achieve  this  end,  the 
milk  must  be  matured  or  soured,  and  this  constitutes  the 
crux  of  the  whole  process ;  it  is  the  place  at  which  the  chemist 
steps  in  to  complete  the  illusion. 

In  order  to  mature  or  sour  the  milk,  certain  germs  are 
necessary.  While  they  are  cultivated  for  this  particular 
purpose  they  are  by  no  means  foreign,  inasmuch  as  they  are 
the  identical  germs  which  are  present  in  the  lactic  acid  of 
the  cow's  milk,  and  which  are  essential  to  the  manufacture 
of  dairy  butter.  Only  in  the  case  of  margarine  they  are 
separately  raised  and  added  to  the  milk.  In  the  laboratory 
the  chemists  have  scores  of  tiny  tubes,  which  are  nursed  as 
carefully  and  tenderly  as  delicate  babies.  Each  tube  con- 
tains a  suitable  medium  upon  which  the  lactic  germs  may 


232         THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

thrive  and  multiply.  These  tubes  are  preserved  in  a  dark 
cupboard  maintained  at  an  equable  temperature.  Under 
such  congenial  conditions  the  bacteria  multiply  at  a  rapid 
rate,  until  at  the  end  of  a  few  hours  the  tube  is  swarming 
with  these  microbes.  The  active  life  is  then  transferred  to 
another  and  larger  vessel,  where  the  increasing  numbers 
have  more  elbow-room  in  which  to  develop  and  to  grow  in  a 
healthy  manner.  This  vessel  is  similarly  stored  for  a  short 
time,  and  when  finally  examined  is  found  to  be  inhabited 
with  millions  of  healthy,  vigorous  microbes.  They  undergo 
another  removal  to  a  larger  residence  to  permit  still  further 
growth  and  development,  until  at  last  the  chemist  is  satisfied 
that  they  have  attained  the  desired  degree  of  maturity  to 
perform  their  allotted  duty. 

The  cultivation  of  these  germs  is  a  peculiarly  fascinating 
branch  of  the  craft.  They  are  curious  organisms.  When 
examined  under  the  microscope  they  resemble  nothing  so 
much  as  a  minute  drop  of  oil  floating  upon  water,  and  move 
slowly  to  and  fro.  The  chemist  watches  the  growth  of  his 
peculiar  charges  with  unceasing  vigilance,  subjecting  them 
to  minute  examinations  at  every  stage.  He  wants  vigorous, 
healthy,  and  fully  developed  germs,  as  their  work  makes  or 
mars  the  margarine.  At  intervals  he  has  to  raise  an  entirely 
new  stock,  since  bacteria,  in  common  with  other  members 
of  the  animal  kingdom,  suffer  degeneration  in  physique, 
energy,  and  size  by  being  inbred  too  severely. 

All  milk  and  at  all  stages,  despite  elaborate  sterilization, 
is  certain  to  attract  and  produce  some  form  of  bacteria 
life,  and  it  is  to  make  doubly  sure  of  the  triumph  of  his 
own  armies  that  the  chemist  takes  such  pains  and  care  to 
raise  an  overwhelming  force.  When  the  souring  microbes 
are  finally  turned  adrift,  they  make  short  work  of  any  other 
germs  in  the  milk,  and  set  about  their  appointed  task. 

Observation  is  able  to  demonstrate  that  the  souring 
microbes  are  winning  their  battle  in  the  milk.  The  charac- 
ter of  the  latter  undergoes  a  change,  while  it  emits  the 
peculiar  acid  aroma  incidental  to  butter.  The  mass  is 
kept  in  agitation  by  means  of  oscillating  blades,  so  that  the 


By  courtesy  of  Messrs.  Otto  Monsted,  Ltd. 
BLENDING  THE   OILS   FOR   THE    PRODUCTION    OF    MARGARINE. 


To  face  page  233. 


BUTTER  FROM  OIL  233 

maturing  culture  is  able  to  carry  out  its  work  thoroughly. 
Souring  completed,  the  chemist  takes  a  final  sample,  to 
convince  himself  that  the  article  is  up  to  the  desired 
standard,  and  then  the  soured  milk  is  ready  for  combination 
with  the  oil. 

The  second  basic  constituent  has  to  be  used  in  a  fluid 
form.  While  coconut  oil  is  the  staple  oleaginous  in- 
gredient employed,  other  oils,  which  are  naturally  fluid,  are 
employed.  Arachide  oil,  like  that  from  the  coconut,  is 
absolutely  flavourless  and  odourless,  and  when  combined 
with  the  coconut  oil,  in  certain  proportions,  renders  the 
latter  more  fluid.  The  oil  arrives  in  various  forms.  The 
greater  quantity  is  brought  up  in  bulk  by  barge  from  the 
refineries,  the  liquid,  in  a  warm  condition,  being  contained 
in  large  tanks,  from  which  it  is  pumped  direct  into  the  oil- 
vats.  In  addition,  large  quantities  arrive  in  huge  casks 
and  drums.  The  blending  of  the  oils  is  an  important 
phase  in  the  operations,  because  it  influences  the  texture 
of  the  nut  butter  very  appreciably. 

In  its  solid  form  coconut  oil  is  a  flaky,  granular  mass, 
and  this  texture  is  useless  for  margarine.  The  latter  must 
possess  every  characteristic  of  the  dairy  product;  butter- 
like  consistency  is  one  of  the  most  vital  attributes.  But 
there  is  one  drawback  to  the  dairy  butter  which  the  manu- 
facturer of  the  artificial  article  is  able  to  overcome.  In 
winter  the  low  temperature  causes  the  former  to  harden, 
so  that  it  is  difficult  to  cut.  In  summer  it  is  directly  oppo- 
site; it  becomes  soft  and  semi-fluid,  in  which  condition  it 
is  wasteful  to  use.  No  such  objection  can  be  levied  against 
artificial  butter.  Through  artifice  of  the  chemist  this 
drawback  is  overcome,  so  that  the  article  maintains  a 
uniform  texture  and  consistency  the  whole  year  round. 
This  end  is  achieved  by  adding  a  small  proportion  of  the 
oil  refined  from  the  arachide,  or,  as  it  is  more  familiarly 
known,  the  pea,  nut,  the  proportion  thereof  varying  with 
the  season. 

The  oil  is  pumped  into  huge  tanks  some  40  feet  in  height 
by  15  to  20  feet  in  diameter,  having  a  capacity  of  90  tons 


234         THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

The  oil  is  heated  to  secure  the  desired  fluidity,  and  then  is 
discharged  into  agitators,  where  the  arachide  or  other  nut 
oil,  together  with  a  certain  proportion  of  colouring  matter, 
is  added,  and  stirred  so  as  to  be  mixed  thoroughly.  The 
colouring  matter  is  a  perfectly  harmless  ingredient  of  vege- 
table origin,  and  is  merely  added  to  impart  the  yellowish 
butter  appearance  to  the  margarine,  which  naturally  is 
a  dead  white. 

The  two  fundamental  ingredients  are  now  brought  to- 
gether and  mixed  in  the  correct  proportions.  The  machine 
which  accomplishes  this  end  is  exceedingly  small  and  won- 
derful. The  blending  is  watched  carefully,  the  operator 
being  provided  with  various  devices  to  enable  him  to  see 
at  a  glance  that  the  proportions  of  oil  and  milk  are  main- 
tained. This  operation,  to  a  certain  degree,  may  be 
likened  to  butter  churning,  only  with  this  difference:  the 
combination  is  effected  practically  instantaneously. 

All  this  time  the  cultivated  microbes,  owing  to  the  steady 
congenial  heat  maintained,  have  been  performing  their 
allotted  task,  though  they  are  under  the  constant  control 
of  the  chemist.  Now  they  receive  a  tremendous  shock: 
the  margarine  has  to  be  solidified.  There  are  two  enormous 
steel-faced  cylinders  mounted  side  by  side,  and  revolving  in 
opposite  directions.  They  are  some  8  feet  in  diameter 
by  the  same  in  length.  They  are  set  so  closely  together 
that  to  the  eye  they  appear  to  be  touching  one  another, 
but,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  there  is  about  -&  inch  space  be- 
tween them.  These  cylinders  are  internally  cooled  to  such 
a  degree  that  the  temperature  of  the  surface  of  the  drum 
is  about  5°  F.— 27°  below  freezing-point.  Visible  evi- 
dences of  this  low  temperature  are  revealed  by  the  snow- 
condensation  of  moisture  in  the  surrounding  atmosphere- 
forming  here  and  there  in  thick  layers  upon  the  ends  of  the 
cylinders. 

Immediately  above  the  clearance  line  between  the  two 
cylinders,  and  about  5  feet  in  length,  is  what  looks  like  a 
huge  rake,  with  the  teeth  pointing  downwards.  Each  tooth 
is  a  tiny  stream.  The  margarine,  resembling  custard  in 


BUTTER  FROM  OIL  235 

its  fluid  condition,  is  driven  through  these  outlets,  and  falls 
between  the  cylinders.  The  moment  it  strikes  the  chilled 
surface  it  congeals  or  solidifies,  the  microbes  having  to 
withstand  an  instantaneous  change  of  nearly  100°  in  tem- 
perature. Owing  to  the  extremely  thin  space  between  the 
two  cylinders,  the  margarine  becomes  deposited  upon  the 
faces  of  the  latter  in  the  form  of  a  very  thin  film,  or  "  emul- 
sion," which  is  carried  round  by  the  cylinders  until  it  meets 
finely  adjusted  knives,  which,  set  across  the  length  of  each 
barrel,  scrape  the  cylinder  surface  and  remove  the  con- 
gealed substance,  which  falls  into  a  trough  beneath.  In 
this  form  the  margarine  resembles  large,  irregular,  but 
extremely  thin,  flakes  of  yellow  snow. 

The  material  now  has  to  be  submitted  to  its  final  me- 
chanical treatment  to  assume  the  attractive  form  in  which 
it  appears  upon  the  table.  It  is  permitted  to  stand  for  a 
few  hours  after  its  emergence  from  the  solidifying  process, 
so  as  to  crystallize.  Then  it  is  inserted  in  large  revolving 
churns.  When  one  of  these  machines  has  received  its 
charge,  the  cover  is  fixed  and  the  churn  is  rotated  rapidly 
for  a  few  minutes.  When  the  drum  is  opened,  the  contents 
have  assumed  a  perfectly  homogeneous  texture  of  the  con- 
sistency of  natural  butter.  Chemistry  has  completed  its 
wizardry.  The  margarine  is  now  ready  for  the  table. 


CHAPTER   XVIII 
OILS  FROM  FISH 

FISH  are  admitted  to  possess  a  high  dietetic  value,  and, 
accordingly,  the  table  has  been  the  principal  field  of  con- 
sumption. But  to-day  the  sea  is  being  netted  for  more 
commercial  reasons.  Fish  are  rich  in  oils,  and  science  has 
discovered  economical  methods  of  extracting  this  content 
and  rendering  it  available  for  a  wide  variety  of  purposes. 
Probably  cod-liver  oil  is  the  fish  oil  which  is  the  best  known 
to  the  public;  while  the  fact  that  the  whale  is  hunted  for 
its  blubber,  otherwise  oil,  is  common  knowledge.  These 
two  species,  however,  do  not  exhaust  the  list  by  any  means. 
Any  member  of  the  finny  tribe,  whether  it  be  edible  or  other- 
wise, possesses  a  certain  marketable  value  essentially  for 
the  oil  which  can  be  recovered.  This  development  has 
changed  completely  the  whole  aspect  of  the  fishing  in- 
dustry, and  has  prompted  the  harvesting  of  fish,  which  a 
decade  or  so  ago  were  regarded  as  worthless,  except,  per- 
haps, as  a  fertilizing  agent. 

The  general  impression  prevails  that  the  medicinal 
properties  possessed  by  the  liver  of  the  cod  are  mainly 
responsible  for  the  exploitation  of  this  organ  of  the  fish. 
This  is  true  to  a  certain  degree.  Only  the  primest  livers  are 
adapted  to  therapeutic  purposes,  and  as  a  large  proportion 
of  the  livers  have  to  be  discarded  as  inferior,  diseased,  or 
otherwise  unsuitable,  they  are  turned  into  other  com- 
mercial channels,  such  as  for  leather-currying,  soap-making, 
and  so  on.  At  times  there  has  been  such  a  glut  of  the 
medicinal  oil,  and  prices  have  been  depressed  to  such  a 
low  figure,  as  to  render  the  refining  process  unremunera- 
tive.  On  the  other  hand,  the  price  of  the  inferior  oil 
236 


OILS  FROM  FISH  237 

remains  fairly  constant,  supply  approximately  balancing 
demand. 

The  most  prolific  sources  of  supply  are  Norway,  New- 
foundland, Labrador,  the  Atlantic  States  of  North  America, 
and  Japan ;  but  the  primest  article  is  derived  from  the  Nor- 
wegian cod,  which  is  caught  in  enormous  quantities  off  the 
Lofoten  Islands.  The  average  catch  in  these  waters  is 
about  30,000,000  cod  per  season,  and,  seeing  that  the 
harvest  is  confined  to  only  a  few  months  of  the  year,  some 
idea  of  the  magnitude  of  the  fishery  and  the  energy  with 
which  it  is  prosecuted  may  be  gathered.  Conditions 
facilitate  a  rich  harvest  as  the  fish  approach  the  shore  so 
closely  in  order  to  spawn,  that  often  two  catches  may  be 
landed  in  a  single  day. 

This  huge  catch  yields  about  30,000  barrels,  or  900,000 
gallons,  of  oil.  Under  normal  conditions  the  average 
weight  of  the  liver  is  about  2  pounds,  and  1,000  fish  will 
yield  one  barrel  of  livers,  from  two  of  which  30  gallons,  or 
one  barrel,  of  oil  may  be  obtained.  The  yield  fluctuates 
considerably,  being  governed  entirely  by  the  condition  of 
the  fish.  Thus,  in  some  years,  when  the  cod  have  been 
lean  and  hungry,  as  many  as  5,000  livers  have  been  required 
to  give  one  barrel  of  oil. 

Careful  selection  of  the  livers  is  imperative.  Only  the 
healthiest  and  primest  are  used  in  the  preparation  of  the 
medicine  oil.  The  oleaginous  content  is  obtained  by  sub- 
mitting the  livers  to  a  moderate  heat  for  about  two  and  a 
half  hours.  Overcooking  results  in  the  production  of  an 
oil  which  is  dark  in  colour  and  unpalatable;  while,  owing 
to  the  process  of  oxygenizating,  which  develops  during  sub- 
mission to  heat,  there  is  a  risk  of  the  oil,  when  administered, 
provoking  internal  irritation.  In  Norway  they  have  adopted 
a  means  of  extracting  the  oil  in  such  a  way  as  to  prevent 
oxidization.  From  the  moment  the  liver  is  placed  in  the 
cooking  vessel  until  the  product  is  packed  for  market  the 
oil  is  kept  free  from  contact  with  the  atmosphere. 

Cooking  completed,  the  mass  is  left  to  cool.  The  oil 
rises  to  the  surface,  while  the  solid  part  of  the  liver  forms 


238         THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

a  layer  or  sediment  at  the  bottom  of  the  vessel.  The  oil 
is  drawn  off,  and  the  sediment  submitted  to  pressure,  to 
express  the  remaining  content  of  oil.  The  latter,  however, 
being  inferior  in  quality,  is  only  fit  for  currying  and  similar 
uses.  The  residue,  after  the  last  traces  of  oil  are  driven 
out,  is  worthless,  and  either  is  sold  as  a  fertilizer  or 
burned. 

The  free  oil  withdrawn  from  the  cooker  is  subjected  to 
further  treatment,  such  as  filtering,  refrigeration,  and 
pressure,  to  remove  the  stearin,  which  is  used  for  soap  and 
candle  making.  The  final  product  is  virtually  a  tasteless 
and  odourless  oil,  and  is  packed  in  tin-lined  barrels  for  bulk 
despatch.  Care  has  to  be  observed  in  packing,  because 
this  oil  possesses  the  peculiar  property  of  absorbing  the 
flavour  of  materials  with  which  it  is  brought  into  contact. 
The  inferior  grades  of  oil  require  no  such  careful  handling, 
and  generally  are  packed  in  empty  petroleum  barrels  and 
drums,  or  any  other  convenient  vessel. 

The  Newfoundland  and  American  cod-fisheries  prepare 
cod-liver  oil  for  manufacturing  purposes  almost  exclusively. 
The  Norwegian  oil  commands  the  highest  value  for  pharma- 
ceutical preparations,  being  in  demand  throughout  the 
world.  Unfortunately  for  the  Norwegian  manufacturing 
interests,  adulteration  is  practised  somewhat  extensively, 
with  the  result  that  cod-liver  oil  has  depreciated  in  value 
as  a  therapeutic,  owing  to  the  doubt  concerning  its  purity, 
and  the  difficulty  of  establishing  this  desideratum. 

In  preparing  the  oil  for  commercial  applications,  less 
care  and  elaborate  plant  are  required.  In  fact,  the  process 
is  partly  completed  upon  the  fishing-boats  while  at  sea— a 
process  which  is  impossible  when  medicinal  oil  is  the  objec- 
tive, since  the  agitation  of  the  oil,  due  to  the  motion  of  the 
boat,  depreciates  its  valuable  properties.  On  the  other 
hand,  when  the  oil  is  required  for  leather-currying  purposes, 
the  rolling  of  the  craft,  and  the  consequent  churning  set  up, 
are  advantageous.  The  livers  of  the  fish,  as  the  latter  are 
opened,  are  thrown  into  vats  or  butts,  where  they  are  left 
to  decompose.  Putrefaction  breaks  down  the  walls  of  the 


OILS  FROM  FISH  239 

cells  in  which  the  oil  is  contained,  and,  consequently,  within 
a  short  time  a  thick  layer  of  oil  appears  upon  the  surface 
of  the  vats.  This  is  skimmed  off  from  time  to  time  and 
barrelled.  Upon  reaching  shore,  the  putrefied  residue  re- 
maining in  the  vats  is  dumped  into  the  cookers,  so  that  the 
liberation  of  the  oil  may  be  completed.  In  this  instance 
cooking  is  carried  to  an  extreme  degree  to  secure  the  maxi- 
mum yield  of  oil,  while  the  process  is  completed  by  squeez- 
ing the  cooked  pulp,  which,  after  pressure,  is  sold  as  a  fer- 
tilizer or  discarded. 

The  output  of  cod  liver  oil  for  manufacturing  purposes 
from  the  Newfoundland  fisheries  is  approximately  1,000,000 
gallons  per  year.  The  Japanese  fishermen  practise  the 
industry  upon  broadly  similar  lines,  and  produce  a  round 
500,000  gallons  of  the  oil  in  the  course  of  the  twelve  months. 
During  recent  years  the  livers  of  other  fish,  such  as  hake, 
pollack,  ling,  tusk,  and  so  forth,  which  are  not  generally 
considered  as  coming  within  the  category  of  edible  fish,  are 
submitted  to  a  similar  process,  the  resultant  oil  being  mixed 
with  that  extracted  from  the  cod.  To  all  intents  and  pur- 
poses it  is  equal  to  the  latter — at  least,  for  manufacturing 
purposes. 

The  shark  ranks  as  the  most  detested  member  of  the 
finny  tribe,  and  one  would  scarcely  think  that  it  possessed 
any  marketable  value.  But  the  liver  is  rich  in  oil,  especially 
when  the  creature  is  in  full  health,  and  is  caught  in  the 
proper  season.  The  sleeper  and  the  basking  sharks  are  those 
most  highly  valued,  though  all  the  members  of  the  species 
contribute  to  the  supply  of  this  commodity.  The  liver  of 
the  basking  shark  will  yield  from  12  to  50  gallons  of  oil,  ac- 
cording to  its  size.  The  sleeper  shark,  which  grows  to  a 
length  of  35  feet,  is  more  prolific  still,  a  prime  large  liver 
yielding  from  80  to  100  gallons  of  oil ;  while  individual  livers 
from  the  largest  fish  have  been  known  to  produce  400 
gallons  of  oil. 

Vessels  engaged  in  this  fishery  have  to  go  far  afield  for 
their  quarry,  the  waters  in  close  proximity  to  the  home 
stations  having  been  depleted.  The  Norwegian  fishermen 


24o         THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

hunt  the  sleeping  shark  to  a  certain  extent,  using  large  hooks, 
baited  with  a  toothsome  dainty ;  while  the  basking  shark  is 
caught  off  the  Atlantic  coast  of  South  America,  and  is 
found  also  in  the  Pacific.  The  brute  is  harpooned,  and, 
being  kept  afloat  by  hauling  tightly  on  to  the  line,  is  des- 
patched by  means  of  lancing,  the  crew  approaching  in  small 
boats  to  achieve  this  end.  Care  has  to  be  observed  that  the 
capture  does  not  "  sound,"  otherwise  it  is  likely  to  be  lost. 
When  killed,  the  shark  is  hauled  alongside,  lifted  partly 
out  of  the  water,  disembowelled,  and  the  liver  removed  in 
chunks,  a  man  entering  the  body  to  complete  the  work. 
When  the  liver  has  been  extracted,  the  carcass  is  abandoned. 
The  liver  is  placed  in  suitable  vessels  on  board  and  cooked, 
to  bring  about  the  release  of  the  oil,  while  the  resultant 
pulp  is  placed  in  canvas  bags,  which  are  slung  up  and  per- 
mitted to  drain.  When  the  last  drops  of  oil  have  oozed 
out,  the  pulp  is  thrown  overboard. 

Practically  every  member  of  the  shark  family — even  the 
dreaded  white,  or  man-eater — can  be  turned  to  commercial 
account,  the  yield  of  oil  from  the  liver  varying  considerably, 
according  to  the  species  of  the  fish  and  its  size.  While  for 
the  most  part  only  the  liver  is  sought,  the  carcass  being 
thrown  away,  in  one  instance — that  of  the  oil  shark,  found 
off  the  coast  of  California — the  fins  also  are  removed.  The 
latter  are  dried,  and  find  a  ready  market  among  the  Chinese, 
who  consider  them  a  delectable  dainty  for  the  concoction 
of  soup. 

The  dog-fish  is  likewise  hunted  for  its  liver,  but  it  has  not 
developed  into  a  special  fishery.  The  yield  is  high  for  the 
size  of  the  fish,  and  the  oil  extracted  therefrom  is  combined 
with  the  lower  grades  of  cod  oil  for  the  leather  trade.  The 
fact  that  this  oil  commands  about  the  same  price  as  that 
derived  from  the  cod  offers  some  compensation  to  the 
fishermen  for  the  damage  wrought  by  this  fish  to  their  nets. 
The  dog-fish  is  generally  considered  to  be  the  pest  of  a 
fishery-ground,  and  inflicts  widespread  damage. 

Probably  no  phase  of  the  fishing  industry  has  been  the 
theme  of  so  much  romance  and  fiction  as  that  of  whaling. 


OILS  FROM  FISH  241 

Thrilling  stories  and  sensational  adventures  without  num- 
ber have  been  associated  with  the  chase  of  the  Monarch  of 
the  Ocean.  But  romance  has  failed  to  reveal  the  most 
interesting  and  fascinating  features  of  the  enterprise;  it  has 
omitted  to  emphasize  the  reliance  which  the  world  placed 
upon  this  oil  only  a  few  years  ago.  Before  the  coming  of 
petroleum,  whale  oil  lubricated  our  machinery,  supplied 
light  for  our  lamps,  illuminated  streets  of  cities  and  towns ; 
while,  converted  to  gas,  it  offered  a  light  for  theatres  and 
other  public  buildings.  Many  arts  and  crafts  depended 
upon  the  supply  of  this  commodity  and  the  success  of  the 
whaling  fisheries ;  the  market  of  a  thousand  and  one  articles 
relied  upon  whether  the  harvest  of  oil  was  meagre  or 
plentiful.  The  story  runs  that  sailors,  when  they  visited 
the  centres  where  whale  oil  was  refined  and  used,  did  not 
hesitate  to  swarm  the  street  lamps  to  imbibe  freely  from 
the  vessels  from  which  the  wick  drew  its  sustenance  for  com- 
bustion and  the  shedding  of  light. 

The  abundance  of  mineral  oil  changed  the  whole  outlook; 
it  drove  whale  oil  completely  from  the  majority  of  the 
fields  of  application  in  which  it  had  reigned  supreme. 
Mineral  oil  was  cheaper,  so  the  fish  oil  could  not  withstand 
the  competition.  The  fishing  fleets  were  compelled  to  roam 
farther  and  farther  from  home  for  the  whales,  and  the  enter- 
prise became  a  greater  gamble  with  every  succeeding  year. 
The  whale  could  not  produce  its  species  in  sufficient  force 
to  replace  the  destruction  by  mankind,  with  the  result 
that  the  oil  increased  in  value.  Petroleum  oils  thus  had  a 
unique  opportunity.  They  were  tested  with  diffidence  at 
first,  but  when  the  market  found  that  the  mineral  was  quite 
as  good  for  the  purpose  as  the  fish  oil,  the  latter  fell  into 
disuse. 

Fortunately,  the  whaling  industry  always  has  had  another 
string  to  its  bow.  Whales  are  not  chased  for  their  blubber 
alone.  The  bone  is  an  even  more  valuable  article,  and  com- 
mands the  market,  because  science  and  mechanical  ingenuity 
have  failed  to  discover  a  perfect  substitute  therefor.  While 
the  price  of  the  oil  steadily  decreased,  owing  to  the  narrowing 

16 


242         THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

of  the  fields  of  application,  the  price  of  the  bone  increased, 
so  that  what  the  fishers  have  lost  in  one  they  have  recouped 
in  another  direction. 

Whaling  still  remains  of  considerable  importance  in  the 
fishing  industry,  although  the  number  of  vessels  engaged 
in  the  traffic  is  shrinking  rapidly.  This,  however,  is  due  in 
a  great  measure  to  the  coming  of  the  steam-driven  craft. 
The  vessels  roam  the  seven  seas,  and  penetrate  to  the 
loneliest  stretches  of  water  in  their  quest  for  the  oil  and  bone- 
yielding  mammals.  Yet  it  is  doubtful  whether  the  annual 
yield  of  whale  oil  of  the  whole  world  exceeds  2,500,000 
gallons.  By  this  is  meant  pure  whale  oil,  not  that  derived 
from  other  denizens  of  the  deep,  which,  owing  to  its  close 
resemblance,  often  is  marketed  under  the  foregoing  title. 

At  the  same  time,  whaling  is  one  of  the  most  precarious 
and  dangerous  callings  of  the  sea.     Time  after  time  tragic 
news  of  the  unfortunate  fate  of  a  whaling  vessel  trickles 
round  the  world.    Two  or  three  years  ago  one  scouring  the 
seas  between  Labrador  and  Greenland  was  caught  in  the 
ice  and  crushed  to  matchwood,  less  than  a  handful  of  the 
crew  effecting  an  escape.    In  1871  a  whole  fleet  of  thirty- 
three  vessels  were  lost  among  the  ice  of  the  Arctic  Ocean ; 
while  five  years  later  the  same  foe  brought  about  the 
abandonment   of  another  twelve   vessels.     Formerly   the 
United  States  possessed  the  largest  whaling  fleets  in  the 
world,  but  the  Civil  War  virtually  exterminated  the  industry. 
No  fewer  than  eighty-two  vessels  were  lost  during  that  ter- 
rible conflict.    One  fleet  of  thirty-six  craft  was  sunk  in 
Charleston  Harbour,  while  forty-six  were  ransacked  and 
scuttled  by  privateers.    Within  fifteen  years  approximately 
one  hundred  and  fifty  American  whaling  vessels  were  lost 
from  one  cause  and  another,  and  never  have  been  replaced. 
While  all  the  whale  species  are  hunted  for  their  bone  and 
blubber,  some  command  a  higher  value  than  the  others. 
For  instance,  the  sperm  whale  has  always  been  in  keen 
demand,  the  oil  which  it  yields  being  peculiar.     So  far,  it 
has  not  been  possible  to  discover  an  efficient  substitute 
for  this  article  from  either  the  vegetable  or  mineral  king- 


OILS  FROM  FISH  243 

doms;  even  the  animal  kingdom  has  failed  to  produce  an 
equivalent  product  in  quantities.  The  porpoise  is  the 
nearest  approach  thereto. 

The  blubber  of  the  whale,  which  is  the  layer  of  fat  between 
the  skin  and  the  flesh,  varies  in  thickness.  In  some  animals 
it  has  been  found  to  be  no  less  than  24  inches  thick.  It  is 
removed  in  huge  slices,  axes,  large  knives,  and  crowbars 
being  employed  to  tear  the  fat  from  the  carcass.  The  oil- 
yielding  body  matter  is  varied,  and  widely  distributed, 
comprising  not  only  the  body  blanket,  but  the  tongue, 
head,  fins,  and  even  internal  organs.  The  oil  is  extracted 
from  the  blubber  by  means  of  heat.  As  the  chunks,  or 
"  horse-pieces,"  come  on  board,  they  are  minced  and  thrown 
into  a  vessel  known  as  a  "  try-pot,"  or  large  copper.  This 
part  of  the  work  is  carried  out  as  a  rule  upon  the  whaling 
vessel,  and,  to  solve  the  fuel  problem  satisfactorily,  the 
residue  remaining  after  the  extraction  of  ^the  oil  is  burned 
to  heat  the  coppers.  A  somewhat  fierce  heat  is  maintained 
night  and  day,  and  the  contents  stirred  vigorously  during 
the  operation.  Great  care  has  to  be  exercised  to  prevent 
the  entry  of  water,  otherwise  the  oil,  when  barrelled,  is  apt 
to  turn  rancid. 

To  reduce  blubber  to  oil  upon  a  whaling  vessel  is  no 
enviable  task.  In  calm  weather  it  is  simple  and  straight- 
forward enough,  but  when  the  elements  commence  to  rage, 
and  the  vessel  to  roll,  pitch,  and  toss,  the  operation  becomes 
dangerous.  The  contents  of  the  copper  surge  to  and  fro, 
boiling  and  bubbling  madly.  If  the  ship  gives  an  un- 
expectedly heavy  lurch,  the  contents  rush  over  the  side, 
and,  meeting  the  fires  below,  ignite  with  a  roar.  Often  the 
staff  superintending  the  boiling  task  has  to  beat  a  sudden 
and  undignified  retreat  to  escape  the  boiling  and  flaming 
liquid,  which  runs  hither  and  thither,  viciously  cracking 
and  spluttering,  over  the  deck.  Fires  are  damped  hurriedly, 
and  large  pieces  of  raw  blubber  are  pitched  pell-mell  into 
the  pot  to  steady  the  agitated  liquid  within.  As  the  oil 
is  reduced,  it  is  turned  into  barrels  and  stowed  until  the 
shore  station  is  reached. 


244         THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

But  the  initial  reduction  of  the  blubber,  as  carried  out 
upon  the  vessel,  is  the  least  important  in  the  whole  gamut 
of  operations.  The  refining  process  may  be  divided  into 
two  well-defined  classes— one  relating  to  the  treatment  of 
sperm  oil,  and  the  other  to  ordinary  whale  oil.  The  former 
is  more  elaborate,  because  it  is  considered  to  be  more  valu- 
able, although,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  to-day  its  market  price 
is  approximately  the  same  as  that  of  the  other.  The  oil  is 
first  subjected  to  a  heating  treatment  for  the  purpose  of 
driving  off  all  water  which  may  be  impregnated  there- 
with ;  while  at  the  same  time  all  solid  matter,  such  as  fibrous 
tissue  and  impurities,  settle  to  the  bottom  of  the  vessel. 
The  oil  is  then  permitted  to  cool.  The  top  layer  of  oil  is 
drawn  off  for  further  refining,  while  the  sediment  is  with- 
drawn and  made  into  soap.  The  first  draw  of  the  oil  now 
undergoes  a  chilling  operation — in  fact,  it  is  frozen,  and  this 
task,  for  the  purposes  of  economy,  is  generally  carried  out 
in  the  winter  season,  to  avoid  the  expense  and  labour  inci- 
dental to  artificial  refrigeration.  The  freezing  operation 
causes  the  oil  to  granulate,  and  in  this  condition  it  is  placed 
in  canvas  bags  and  submitted  to  immense  pressure,  varying 
up  to  2,000  pounds  per  square  inch.  This  pressure  causes 
a  clear  cold  oil  to  be  expressed.  This  run  is  known  as 
"  winter  sperm  oil,"  which  is  capable  of  resisting  congelation 
at  an  exceedingly  low  temperature.  This  characteristic  is 
one  of  the  virtues  of  sperm  oil,  and  is  responsible  for  its 
horological  application,  in  which  it  may  be  mentioned  it 
finds  one  of  its  most  remunerative  markets. 

The  contents  of  the  bags  are  now  subjected  to  another 
term  of  pressure,  but  at  a  higher  temperature.  Further  oil 
is  exuded,  but  it  differs  in  quality  and  character  from  that 
derived  from  the  first  squeezing.  Consequently,  it  is  kept 
distinct  from  the  former.  Finally,  the  bags  are  emptied. 
The  granulated  oil  resembles  cheese  in  texture  and  con- 
sistency. After  a  short  storage  in  a  uniform  heat,  it  is 
passed  through  a  machine,  which  reduces  it  to  thin  shavings, 
and  once  more  it  is  bagged,  to  undergo  further  squeezing. 
On  this  occasion  immense  pressure  is  applied — about  40  tons 


OILS  FROM  FISH  245 

per  square  inch.  This  third  yield  represents  another  grade 
of  oil,  which,  like  the  two  former  grades,  is  kept  distinct. 
Each  of  these  grades,  it  may  be  mentioned,  has  an  individual 
chilling-point,  the  first,  or  winter  sperm,  having  the  lowest. 
After  the  third  squeezing  the  residue  in  the  bags  is  crude 
spermaceti,  which  is  passed  through  subsequent  clarifying 
processes,  to  render  it  suitable  for  its  particular  market. 

Whale  oil  is  submitted  to  a  process  somewhat  similar  to 
that  followed  with  sperm  oil,  but  the  process  is  not  so  pro- 
longed or  intricate.  As  a  rule  only  one  pressing  is  carried 
out.  The  oil  expressed,  which  is  about  one-eighth  of  the 
bulk  of  the  bag  contents,  is  then  bleached.  It  is  run  into 
a  tank  and  agitated,  soda  ash  or  caustic  soda  being  added 
during  the  operation.  The  thick,  gummy  constituents  of 
the  oil  settle  to  the  bottom,  while  the  clearer  and  more  fluid 
constituents  rise  to  the  top.  The  bleaching  process  may  be 
repeated  two  or  three  times,  according  to  the  projected 
marketable  application  of  the  product.  The  sediment  from 
the  agitators  is  drawn  off  and  boiled  down  to  produce  oil- 
soap.  The  contents  of  the  bags  after  the  oil  has  been  ex- 
pressed are  known  as  "  stearin,"  and  this  may  be  refined 
in  the  manner  of  spermaceti,  or  it  may  be  sold  in  its  crude 
condition.  Its  applications  are  somewhat  limited,  since,  in 
the  main,  it  is  used  as  a  substitute  for  tallow.  The  residue 
from  the  agitators  finds  its  principal  market  as  an  insecticide 
in  orchards. 

While  the  whale  yields  immense  quantities  of  oil,  there 
are  several  other  members  of  this  family  which  are  hunted 
for  this  product,  such  as  the  seal,  walrus,  sea-elephant,  and 
sea-lion.  This  fishery  is  not  confined  to  any  one  corner  of 
the  globe,  but  is  practised  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific, 
from  Norway,  Spitzbergen  and  the  Arctic  to  the  Antarctic ; 
while  even  the  Caspian  Sea  contributes  to  the  world's  supply 
of  seal  oil.  The  blubber,  or  fat,  which  is  the  object  of  the 
chase,  is  that  lying  between  the  skin  and  the  muscular 
tissues.  This  is  stripped  and  cut  into  chunks,  to  expedite 
the  expression  of  the  oil.  Three  broad  methods  of  winning 
the  oil  are  practised,  the  process  adopted  varying  according 


246         THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

to  the  situation,  the  extent  of  the  catch,  and  the  facilities 
available ;  while  the  intended  use  of  the  product  also  affects 
the  issue  to  a  certain  degree.  The  first  and  simplest  is 
the  sun  treatment.  Here  the  mass  of  blubber  is  piled  in 
a  heap,  in  capacious  tanks,  and  exposed  to  solar  heat. 
Putrefaction  sets  in,  breaking  down  the  walls  of  the  cells 
and  releasing  the  oil.  Some  two  or  three  months  may  be 
occupied  in  the  process,  according  to  the  state  of  the  weather ; 
but,  while  the  method  is  slow,  it  is  inexpensive  and  simple, 
as  well  as  being  effective.  The  first  "  run  "  of  oil  is  pale  in 
colour,  but  the  hue  changes  through  an  orange  to  a  dark 
brown  as  decomposition  advances,  owing  to  the  fact  that 
the  products  of  putrefaction  become  associated  with  the 
liquid.  When  decomposition  has  been  completed,  the  pulp 
is  submitted  to  a  boiling  process.  The  oil  rises  to  the  surface 
of  the  water,  and  is  skimmed  off,  while  the  pulp  is  finally 
induced  to  yield  the  remaining  drops  of  oil  by  submission 
to  great  pressure. 

The  cooking  process  is  quicker,  but  more  expensive.  In 
this  the  blubber  is  minced  finely,  and  placed  in  a  copper 
over  a  fire.  Gentle  heat  is  applied,  and  the  cells  being 
broken  up,  the  oil  escapes  to  the  surface,  when  it  is  skimmed 
off  as  if  it  were  cream  upon  milk.  This  process  is  im- 
perfect, because,  being  practised  only  when  the  catch  is 
comparatively  small  and  upon  the  spot,  the  hunters  have  not 
the  facilities  for  increasing  the  yield  by  submitting  the  pulp 
to  a  final  pressing. 

The  third,  or  steam,  process  is  that  which  is  adopted  most 
extensively.  It  has  the  advantage  of  being  rapid,  while 
the  oil  thus  obtained  is  practically  odourless,  whereas  that 
derived  by  decomposition  is  most  offensive,  as  may  be 
imagined.  The  blubber  is  minced  and  placed  in  large  tanks, 
where  it  is  brought  into  contact  with  steam.  The  latter 
carries  away  the  oil,  which  is  deposited  in  receiving-tanks. 
This  oil  is  of  a  high  grade,and  is  kept  distinct  from  that  which 
is  finally  obtained  by  subjecting  the  pulp  to  pressure. 

In  prosecuting  this  fishery,  the  hunters  not  only  have  the 
advantage  of  securing  paying  quantities  of  oil,  but  the  skins 


ROUXDIXG-UP   A   SCHOOL   OF    PORPOISES. 


HAULING    IN   THE   SEINE    AND   THE    PORPOISE   CATCH. 


To  face  Page  247. 


OILS  FROM  FISH  247 

of  the  creatures  also  are  marketable  for  the  most  part. 
The  pelts  of  the  seal  command  a  ready  sale ;  the  sea  elephant's 
hide  is  also  in  request  among  tanners.  The  grounds  for 
hunting  the  latter  are  for  the  most  part  off  the  extreme 
South  American  coast,  especially  around  the  smaller  and  un- 
populated islands  of  the  Southern  Seas.  The  sea-elephants 
make  their  way  ashore  during  the  latter  part  of  the  year, 
and  the  hunters  time  their  arrival  to  coincide  with  this 
movement.  The  brutes  are  found  in  large  herds,  ranging 
from  50  to  300,  or  more.  The  largest  bulls  are  despatched, 
the  females  and  young  being  left  unmolested,  unless  the 
harvest  of  bulls  should  prove  indifferent.  The  thickness  of 
blubber  ranges  up  to  10  inches,  and  this  is  cut  off  in  large 
pieces  and  towed  out  to  the  vessels  moored  off-shore.  The 
oil  is  extracted  by  the  method  generally  practised  in  con- 
nection with  whale  blubber,  and  subsequently  refined. 
Ultimately  it  is  classed  as  whale  oil,  because  it  closely  re- 
sembles the  latter  article,  and  as  such  commands  a  good 
price. 

The  walrus  is  hunted  much  upon  the  same  lines  as  the 
sea-elephant,  but  the  oil-yield  from  this  creature  is  con- 
siderably less.  The  layer  of  blubber  is  much  thinner,  the 
average  yield  being  about  20  gallons  from  each  walrus. 
Unfortunately,  in  this  case,  the  wasteful  practices  followed 
by  the  early  hunters  when  the  fish  were  abundant  have 
affected  the  fishery  very  seriously.  Thirty  years  ago  the 
walrus-hunt  yielded  about  2,000,000  gallons  of  oil,  worth 
£200,000,  or  $1,000,000,  per  annum.  To-day  the  hunters 
consider  themselves  well  favoured  by  fortune  if  they  bring 
2,000  gallons  of  oil  back  from  the  chase.  In  one  day's 
hunt  it  is  stated  that  over  1,500  walrus  were  killed  upon  a 
single  sand-bar  upon  which  they  were  discovered  disporting 
themselves.  Not  one  of  the  carcasses  was  saved;  a  high 
tide  washed  the  whole  harvest  away.  It  is  not  surprising, 
therefore,  that  in  time  the  catches  depreciated  in  number 
and  value,  and  that  the  hunters  are  compelled  now  to  pene- 
trate to  more  distant  and  lonely  seas  for  their  quarry. 

While  sperm  oil  is  generally  considered  as  one  of  the 


248         THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

finest    lubricants    for   watches,    delicate    machinery,    and 
mechanism,  it  is  exceeded  in  these  properties  by  what  is 
known  as  "fish-jaw  oil."    This  is  the  oil  which  is  extracted 
from  the  jaw  of  the  porpoise.     Mr.  William  F.  Nye,  of  New 
Bedford,  Massachusetts,  U.S.A.,  was  one  of  the  first  to  recog- 
nize the  peculiar  properties  and  unique  value  of  this  oil,  and 
accordingly  has  specialized  in  its  production.     He  was  per- 
suaded to  this  effort  by  the  indifferent  success  which  had 
attended  the  utilization  of  nut,  bone,  seed,  and  mineral  oil 
in  lubricating  horological  instruments.    These  latter  oils 
proved  fairly  efficient  for  a  time,  but  were  susceptible  to 
oxidation,  evaporation,  and  the  tendency  to  "  creep  "  all 
over  the  movement,  thus  reducing  the  amount  of  lubrication 
on  a  pivot  in  a  jewel.     In  the  case  of  a  chronometer  this 
defect  is  serious,  because  it  affects  the  accuracy  of  the 
instrument.    What  is  wanted  is  a  lubricating  medium  which 
will  not  oxidize,  grow  rancid,  evaporate,  creep,  gum,  or 
chill,  and  which  will  withstand  a  high  and  low  temperature 
with  equal  success. 

In  the  early  days  complete  dependence  had  to  be  placed 
upon  the  oil  derived  from  the  sperm  whale,  because  there 
was  no  alternative ;  but  the  quality  of  the  crude  deteriorated 
rapidly  as  the  fishing  fleets  diminished,  and  as  the  whalers 
were  forced  to  more  distant  fishing-grounds.  The  climax 
came  when  Mr.  Nye  placed  upon  the  market  a  consignment 
of  oil  for  timepieces,  which  proved  to  be  sadly  wanting  in 
the  essential  qualities.  For  some  time  the  cause  of  this 
deficiency  baffled  discovery,  but  when  it  was  finally  ascer- 
tained an  alarming  situation  developed.  Either  a  more 
reliable  source  of  supply  than  the  whale-hunters  offered 
would  have  to  be  found,  or  watch-oil  would  have  to  become 
numbered  among  things  unknown.  Mr.  Nye  embarked 
upon  an  elaborate  and  prolonged  series  of  experiments, 
which  culminated  in  the  discovery  that  the  oil  obtained 
from  the  jaw  of  the  porpoise  and  blackfish  was  vastly 
superior  to  the  sperm  product. 

In  order  to  secure  reliability  in  the  grade  of  the  crude, 
he  elaborated  his  own  arrangements  for  hunting  down  and 


OILS  FROM  FISH  249 

catching  the  porpoise  and  the  extraction  of  the  oil.  The 
main  idea  was  to  control  the  issue  from  one  end  to  the 
other,  and  thus  be  independent  of  outside  supplies. 

This  industry  has  now  become  one  of  vital  importance, 
and  probably  is  unique.  Only  the  porpoise  and  blackfish 
are  hunted.  Owing  to  the  fact  that  very  few  of  the  latter 
are  seen  off  the  North  American  coast,  and  still  fewer  ever 
driven  ashore,  little  dependence  is  placed  upon  this  species. 
They  are  larger  than  the  porpoise,  but  since  the  oil  is  pre- 
cisely the  same  as  that  derived  from  the  latter,  the  porpoise 
is  the  fish  for  which  vigilant  search  is  made. 

Mr.  Nye  has  established  his  own  station  at  the  lonely, 
inhospitable  spot  of  Cape  Hatteras,  North  Carolina.  Several 
crews  are  distributed  over  a  ten-mile  stretch  of  the  beach,  off 
which  the  porpoise  is  seen  in  great  numbers.  Each  crew  com- 
prises fifteen  men,  provided  with  four  boats,  and  a  seine,  about 
i, 800  feet  in  length.  Each  subsidiary  station  is  equipped 
with  an  outlook,  and  one  of  the  crew  is  constantly  scanning 
the  sea  for  signs  of  the  fish,  which  swim  in  schools  parallel 
with  the  beach,  and  relatively  close  in  shore.  Directly  a 
school  is  sighted,  the  crew  are  called,  and,  taking  to  the 
boats,  proceed  to  drop  the  seine,  rounding  up,  or  coralling, 
the  fish  by  drawing  the  net  around  them.  When  this  has 
been  accomplished  successfully,  the  men  make  for  the 
shore  with  their  net,  and  in  a  short  while  the  whole  school 
is  imprisoned  in  a  small  pond  or  area  of  the  sea.  A 
"  sweep-net "  is  then  requisitioned,  and  with  this  the 
porpoises  are  brought  to  the  water's  edge.  A  rope  is  passed 
round  the  tail  of  the  fish,  which  is  hauled  through  the  surf 
to  a  point  high  and  dry  upon  the  beach,  where  it  is  des- 
patched. 

The  carcass  is  stripped  of  the  blubber  or  hide  from  the 
body,  while  the  jaw  is  removed  separately,  carried  to  a 
factory,  within  easy  reach  of  the  beach,  where  kettles, 
presses,  and  strainers  are  installed.  Here  the  jaw  oil  is 
rendered  immediately.  The  body  or  the  blubber  oil  is  a 
cheap  grade,  approximately  of  the  value  of  sperm  oil,  and 
is  sold.  The  hide  itself  is  also  recovered,  and  finds  a  ready 


250         THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

market  among  tanners.  As  it  is  essential  that  the  jaw  oil 
shall  be  transferred  to  the  refinery  with  all  speed,  in  order 
to  preserve  its  sweet  qualities  and  to  avoid  rancidity,  it  is 
tried  out  with  gentle  heat,  strained,  and  despatched  to  the 
refinery  at  New  Bedford. 

The  refining  of  fish- jaw  oil  is  probably  the  most  pro- 
tracted refining  process  in  the  whole  oil  industry,  the 
preparation  of  the  oil  for  its  peculiar  purpose  occupying 
at  least  two  years.  Immediately  upon  arrival  at  the  fac- 
tory the  gentle  cooking  process  commenced  by  the  fisher- 
men is  resumed.  When  the  full  yield  of  oil  has  been  given 
off,  the  latter  is  placed  in  casks  or  tanks  to  await  the  process 
of  grading.  This  is  the  stage  at  which  the  greatest  care 
has  to  be  exercised.  It  is  only  by  leaving  the  oil  stagnant 
for  a  prolonged  length  of  time  that  the  trained  and  skilful 
eye  of  the  refiner  is  able  to  detect  to  what  grade  it  belongs. 
Elaborate  and  delicate  tests  are  made,  but  greater  reliance 
has  to  be  placed  upon  trained  human  skill.  The  sub- 
division of  the  oils  into  the  various  classes  is  extremely 
delicate,  variations  of  colour,  texture,  odour,  and  flavour, 
as  well  as  other  numerous  factors,  governing  the  selection. 
In  fact,  it  is  stated  that  there  are  barely  half  a  dozen  men  in 
the  whole  world  who  have  acquired  the  requisite  skill  to 
carry  out  this  peculiar  task,  which  conveys  some  idea  of 
the  difficulties  attending  the  production  of  an  efficient 
clock  oil. 

By  the  end  of  two  years  the  oxygen  has  united  with 
whatever  organic  matter  or  other  impurities  are  contained 
in  the  oil.  Ordinary  straining  removes  this  deleterious 
matter.  The  oil  now  has  to  be  treated  so  that  it  may  be 
unaffected  by  extreme  fluctuations  in  temperature.  It  is 
spread  out  in  thin  layers  and  subjected  to  a  temperature 
far  below  zero,  because  it  is  impossible  to  advance  another 
step  until  this  is  achieved.  Moreover,  the  cooling  must  be 
carried  out  gradually;  the  process  cannot  be  accelerated, 
or  the  properties  of  the  oil  undergo  destruction. 

When  it  has  been  chilled  to  the  desired  degree,  an  in- 
teresting change  takes  place.  The  oil  has  a  beautiful  amber 


OILS  FROM  FISH  251 

hue,  but  slowly  minute  spots  of  translucent  material  appear . 
They  have  an  affinity  for  one  another,  so  they  gradually 
come  together.  When  this  development  has  continued  to 
finality,  the  liquid  is  strained  through  a  suitable  fabric, 
which  collects  these  particles,  leaving  a  clear-coloured  oil, 
which  fulfils  all  the  requirements  of  the  watch  industry. 
The  perfection  of  this  elaborate  process  may  be  appreciated 
when  it  is  stated  that  oil  produced  in  this  manner  has  suc- 
cessfully resisted  congelation  when  submitted  to  a  tempera- 
ture as  low  as  50°  below  zero.  While  the  finest  grades  are 
absorbed  by  the  watch-making  and  other  industries,  where 
a  delicate,  non-oxidizing,  non-creeping,  and  non-evaporating 
oil  is  imperative,  the  lower  grades  find  a  ready  market  for 
lubricating  other  machinery,  such  as  sewing-machines,  type- 
writers, and  so  forth,  where  freedom  from  gumminess  is 
desired. 

The  body  oil-content  of  numerous  other  fish,  such  as  the 
herring,  hake,  ray,  and  so  forth,  is  now  recovered.  In 
fact,  there  is  no  fish  which  cannot  be  induced  to  yield  a 
certain  proportion  of  oil.  Those  fish  which  are  caught  in 
abundance  by  means  of  trawls  and  seines  are  treated  upon 
an  extensive  scale.  Huge  coppers  receive  them  for  the 
initial  heat  treatment,  while  batteries  of  presses  squeeze  the 
cooked  pulp  to  the  last  drop.  The  oil  finds  a  ready  market, 
though  the  prevailing  price  may  be  somewhat  low,  while 
the  residue  makes  an  excellent  fish  manure,  and  is  in  in- 
creasing demand.  In  the  British  Isles  summary  disposal 
of  the  surplus  catches  of  edible  fish  is  the  rule:  they  are 
sold  direct  to  the  farmers  and  distributed  upon  the  land. 
No  attempt  is  made  to  secure  the  economical  content  which, 
if  adequate  facilities  were  available,  would  reduce  the  losses 
inseparable  from  a  glut,  while  the  revenue  accruing  from  the 
sale  of  the  residue  as  a  fertilizer  would  be  increased,  since 
their  speedy  disposal  would  not  be  imperative,  as  it  is  at 
present.  Even  the  useless  parts  of  the  fish,  resulting  from 
cleaning,  might  be  profitably  submitted  to  an  oil-reducing 
process. 

Fortunately,  there  are  indications  that  at  last  this  wastage 


252         THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

of  the  sea  has  been  appreciated.  One  of  the  latest  improve- 
ments is  the  inauguration,  by  American  interests,  of  a 
floating  oil-factory.  This  craft  has  been  built  and  equipped 
with  the  latest  electrical  and  mechanical  time  and  labour 
saving  devices,  and  will  primarily  be  engaged  in  two  in- 
dustries— the  catching  of  inedible  fish  for  oil-extraction,  and 
the  manufacture  of  fertilizer  from  the  scrap  or  residue 
respectively.  ^The  menhaden  is  the  fish  to  be  exploited,  huge 
shoals  thereof  being  found  in  the  waters  washing  the  North 
Atlantic  seaboard  of  the  States.  This  fish  resembles  a 
herring,  but  has  no  dietetic  value.  It  is  rich  in  oil,  how- 
ever, which  finds  a  ready  and  profitable  sale  in  the  tannery 
and  paint  manufacturing  industries. 

The  vessel  carries  160  employees,  who  work  in  two  shifts, 
thereby  enabling  manufacture  to  be  carried  on  day  and 
night  continuously.  Unlike  the  majority  of  fishing- vessels, 
it  is  not  compelled  to  return  to  port  frequently,  supplies  of 
fuel  and  rations  being  carried  to  suffice  for  a  month  at  sea. 
The  manufacturing  capacity  of  the  floating  factory  is  800 
barrels  of  oil  and  20  tons  of  fertilizer  per  day,  which,  owing 
to  the  abundance  of  the  fish,  can  be  maintained  without 
effort. 

When  a  shoal  is  encountered,  huge  nets  are  cast  over- 
board, and  are  hauled  in  by  means  of  electrically  driven 
tackle.  The  nets  are  emptied  into  storage-bins,  whence, 
by  means  of  screw  conveyors,  the  fish  are  carried  in  an  end- 
less stream  into  small  hoppers,  and  then  fed  automatically 
into  the  steam  cookers,  where,  in  the  course  of  a  few  minutes, 
they  are  reduced  to  a  pulp.  The  oil,  rendered  by  cooking, 
is  drawn  off,  while  the  residue  is  passed  into  presses,  where 
the  last  drops  of  oil  are  driven  out.  The  oil  is  conducted 
to  tanks,  where  it  is  tested.  Being  found  sweet  and  pure,  it 
is  cooled,  and  then  turned  into  storage  tanks,  which  have  a 
combined  capacity  of  20,000  barrels. 

The  residue,  or  scrap,  is  taken  from  the  presses,  dried, 
and  packed  in  bags  for  market.  The  vessel  is  fitted  with 
wireless  telegraphy,  so  that  when  the  storage  tanks  and  other 
space  are  fully  charged,  barges  and  tugs  may  proceed  out  to 


OILS  FROM  FISH  253 

sea  to  take  off  the  stocks  and  transport  them  to  the  nearest 
port.  In  this  way  the  period  of  unproductivity,  which 
would  arise  by  returning  to  port  and  reputting  out  to  sea, 
is  reduced  to  the  minimum,  because  the  vessel  need  not  return 
home  until  it  becomes  necessary  to  replenish  fuel  and  food 
supplies.  While  the  menhaden  oil  industry  has  been  placed 
upon  a  solid  foundation  in  regard  to  shore  oil-reducing 
plants,  this  is  the  first  time  the  idea  of  establishing  a  floating 
factory  has  been  attempted,  and,  as  an  illustration  of 
scientific  and  commercial  activity  in  this  particular  industry, 
it  is  of  unusual  interest. 

The  fierce  competition  offered  by  petroleum  has  driven 
the  fish  oils  almost  into  oblivion.  There  is  a  certain  trade 
in  blended  oils — combinations  of  fish  and  mineral  oils — 
but  it  is  somewhat  limited.  The  trend  has  been  rather  to 
prepare  petroleum  oils  in  such  a  manner  as  to  approach 
very  closely  the  characteristics  and  properties  of  fish  oils, 
while  other  developments  have  tended  to  displace  them.  A 
few  years  ago  sperm  oil,  for  instance,  comprised  the  standard 
illuminant  for  lighthouses;  to-day  paraffin,  in  conjunction 
with  the  incandescent  gas-burner,  or  acetylene,  is  employed. 

There  are  striking  evidences  of  a  revival  in  the  fish-oil 
industry.  Science  has  been  busy.  The  increasing  price  of 
dairy  butter  and  the  demand  for  effective  substitutes  for  this 
comestible,  prompted  a  novel  line  of  research.  Fish  oils 
possess  certain  dietetic  qualities;  at  all  events,  they  are 
quite  as  valuable  a  foodstuff  as  animal  fats.  But  the  pecu- 
liar flavour  and  aroma  of  the  oils  derived  from  this  source 
were  a  severe  drawback,  while  there  was  the  additional 
difficulty  of  inducing  the  oil  to  congeal  or  granulate  at  a 
temperature  comparable  with  the  setting  point  of  butter. 
Elaborate  experiments  were  carried  out.  First  the  diffi- 
culties of  aroma  and  flavour  were  overcome,  and  finally  the 
problem  of  congelation  was  solved  with  complete  success. 
The  process  is  comparatively  simple  and  inexpensive.  The 
fish  oils  are  submitted  to  what  is  known  as  a  "  hydrogen- 
ating  process."  A  blast  or  current  of  hydrogen  is  driven 
through  the  liquid  oil,  which  is  placed  in  a  vessel  made  from 


254         THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

certain  metals  such  as  nickel.  The  action  of  the  gas  upon 
the  metallic  surface  and  the  chemical  composition  of  the 
oil  completes  a  startling  transformation.  The  oil  is  induced 
to  solidify.  Thus  a  new  fat  base  for  artificial  butter  or 
margarine  has  been  discovered.  It  is  stated  to  compare 
favourably  with  the  substitute  derived  from  cocoanut  and 
other  vegetable  oils,  to  withstand  climatic  variations,  and 
to  defy  detection  by  the  palate. 

But  this  latest  conquest  of  science  is  not  without  its 
alarming  features.  Applied  chemistry  in  its  endeavour  to 
widen  the  field  of  foodstuffs  has  wrought  too  complete  a 
victory.  The  dairy  interests  rose  up  in  arms  against  the 
introduction  of  margarine;  but  now  they  are  faced  with  a 
far  more  formidable  competitor.  Fish-oil  butter  is  so 
closely  similar  to  the  dairy  product  that  the  character  of  the 
oil  base  cannot  be  determined.  Even  the  analyst  is  baffled. 
The  chemical  change  wrought  by  hydrogenating  is  so  com- 
plete that  the  resultant  margarine  assumes  every  charac- 
teristic of  dairy  butter.  As  may  be  imagined,  this  triumph 
of  scientific  effort  is  being  viewed  with  misgivings.  At  the 
moment  no  means  of  guarding  the  consumer  against  imposi- 
tion are  available.  Strenuous  efforts  have  been  made,  and 
are  still  being  made,  to  invent  tests  to  prove  whether  the 
fatty  base  is  a  fish  oil,  but  they  have  not  been  successful. 

How  this  remarkable  situation  is  to  be  met  it  is  impossible 
to  say.  Already  factories  for  the  manufacture  of  this  fish- 
oil  butter  have  been  erected  and  are  in  operation.  The 
produce  has  even  reached  the  market.  Norway  and  Japan 
are  the  pioneers  in  this  new  branch  of  industry;  both 
countries  have  an  extensive  fishing  industry  upon  which  to 
rely,  and  both  have  become  recognized  as  large  producers 
of  fish  oils.  Fish-oil  butter  is  assured  of  a  ready  and  ex- 
tensive sale  throughout  Northern  Europe  and  the  East; 
but  the  product  is  being  placed  upon  the  other  big  markets 
of  the  world.  At  the  moment  it  is  possible  to  identify  the 
article,  since  the  process  of  manufacture  is  not  quite  perfect, 
but  the  butter  and  margarine  industries  realize  the  fact 
that  such  defects  are  merely  the  inevitable  corollary  of  a 


OILS  FROM  FISH  255 

new  process,  and  are  certain  to  be  overcome  as  experience 
is  gained  and  mechanical  processes  are  perfected  and  im- 
proved. 

The  outlook  is  certainly  disturbing,  because  fish-oil 
butter,  owing  to  the  low  price  at  which  it  can  be  manu- 
factured in  countries  where  labour  is  cheap,  cannot  fail  to 
affect  the  genuine  article  as  well  as  its  recognized  sub- 
stitutes. No  objection  can  be  levied  against  the  use  of 
fish  oils  in  this  particular  direction,  inasmuch  as  they  are 
quite  as  nutritive  as  vegetable  and  animal  fats.  It  will 
impart  a  decided  stimulus  to  the  fishing  industry,  and  more 
economical  methods  of  winning  the  oil  from  the  aquatic 
animal  kingdom  are  certain  to  be  evolved.  Whale  oil  is 
the  staple  oleaginous  constituent  which  is  being  used  in  this 
latest  development  at  present,  but,  owing  to  the  possi- 
bilities of  the  hydrogenating  process,  anxiety  is  being  ex- 
pressed lest  oils  derived  from  other  and  somewhat  more 
doubtful  sources  be  employed.  Everything  points  to 
another  revolution  in  regard  to  one  article  which  appears 
very  prominently  upon  the  table,  and  which  enters  so  inti- 
mately into  the  preparation  of  comestibles. 


CHAPTER  XIX 
METHODS  OF  DISTRIBUTING  REFINED  OILS 

ALTHOUGH  the  transportation  of  the  crude  from  the  field 
to  the  refinery  offers  its  peculiar  problems,  they  are  insig- 
nificant in  comparison  with  those  attending  the  distribution 
of  the  products  of  distillation  among  the  markets  of  the 
world.  Considerations  of  cheap  movement,  expedition, 
simplicity,  and  efficiency  have  to  be  studied  in  both  in- 
stances; but  whereas  the  producer  has  one  substance  only 
to  sell — the  raw  petroleum — the  refiner  has  a  diversified 
assortment  of  articles  of  which  to  dispose,  each  of  which 
possesses  its  individual  market. 

'Twixt  well  and  still  the  pipe-line  meets  the  situation 
very  completely,  but  a  similar  channel  of  transportation  is 
impossible  between  refiner  and  consumer.  The  distributing 
issue  is  rendered  additionally  complex  because  local  fads 
and  fancies  have  to  be  studied  and  satisfied,  otherwise  the 
commodity  meets  with  an  indifferent  reception.  The 
methods  of  packing,  even  the  materials  employed  for  the 
latter,  vary  considerably.  What  fulfils  the  requirements 
of  the  British  market,  for  instance,  is  quite  unfitted  for  the 
Chinese  field,  and  so  on. 

Another  factor  plays  a  very  prominent  part  in  the  success- 
ful disposal  of  the  products  of  the  refinery.  Each  country 
possesses  its  individual  methods  of  transportation,  and  close 
regard  must  be  paid  to  them.  While  the  railway,  the 
highroad,  and  motor  traction  facilitate  movement  in  old- 
established  countries,  in  the  newer  territories,  where  settle- 
ment and  development  are  in  the  embryonic  stage,  the 
mediums  of  transport  at  command  are  often  of  a  primitive 
and  uncertain  character.  In  India  it  may  be  a  bullock- 
256 


METHODS  OF  DISTRIBUTING  REFINED  OILS    257 

cart;  in  North  Africa  the  mule;  in  Egypt  the  camel;  in 
Uganda  the  native's  head;  in  China  a  hand-drawn  truck; 
and  so  on.  Similarly,  the  artery  of  communication  varies 
widely  in  character  from  an  ice-road  to  a  Bush  path,  from 
a  tortuous,  madly  rushing  river  to  a  winding  desert  trail. 
Each  demands  an  individual  system  of  packing  in  order 
to  meet  local  conditions  effectively. 

The  problem  of  distribution  may  be  resolved  into  two 
broad  groups — wholesale  and  retail.  The  former  represents 
the  conveyance  of  the  product  in  bulk  from  the  refinery  to 
a  suitable  distributing-point  in  the  territory  offering  a 
market.  The  second  involves  the  preparation  and  sale  of 
the  article  in  small  quantities  to  meet  the  fluctuating 
demands  of  the  consumer.  The  motorist  desires  his  fuel  in 
convenient  2-gallon  tins,  while  the  rural  cottager,  relying 
upon  oil  for  his  table-lamp  and  cooking-stove,  desires  it  in 
loose  quantities  from  \  gallon  to  a  drum  or  barrel  con- 
taining 40  gallons  or  more.  Under  these  circumstances,  as 
may  be  supposed,  distribution  represents  the  most  expensive 
phase  of  the  oil  industry,  one  in  which  the  arts  of  salesman- 
ship and  organization  are  urgently  required.  It  is  a  factor 
which  greatly  affects  the  price  which  the  consumer  is  called 
upon  to  pay  for  the  commodity,  and  the  items  of  expense, 
efficiency,  and  elimination  of  waste,  must  be  studied  care- 
fully in  order  to  meet  the  fierce  stress  of  competition.  The 
perfection  of  a  complete  and  reliable  system  of  distribution 
occupies  years  of  labour  and  involves  enormous  financial 
outlay .  the  return  upon  which  may  not  become  apparent 
for  a  prolonged  length  of  time. 

During  the  past  few  years  remarkable  improvements  have 
been  effected  in  matters  pertaining  to  distribution.  In 
fact,  among  the  foremost  companies  of  the  world  it  has 
developed  quite  into  a  science.  Nowadays  the  refined  oils 
are  transported  from  the  refineries  to  point  of  shipment  by 
rail,  water,  and  pipe-lines.  The  cheapest  channel  along 
which  the  product  may  be  moved  is  adopted,  so  long  as  it  is 
consistent  with  speedy  despatch. 

In  the  early  days  railways  and  barges  were  the  sole 

17 


258         THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

vehicles  for  transit.  The  oil  was  packed  in  barrels,  and 
thus  shipped  to  all  parts  of  the  world.  This  was  an  exceed- 
ingly expensive  system.  The  capital  invested  in  the  manu- 
facture of  the  drums,  whether  made  of  wood  or  metal,  was 
enormous,  while  the  item  of  upkeep,  owing  to  the  severe 
wear  and  tear,  reached  a  huge  figure  during  the  course  of 
the  year.  But  even  when  barrelling  was  in  vogue,  and  the 
railways  handled  the  bulk  of  the  product,  the  ingenuity  of 
the  oil-refiners  was  revealed  in  an  interesting  manner. 
The  ordinary  goods  waggon  or  freight  car  could  only  receive 
a  strictly  limited  number  of  barrels,  even  when  stacked  and 
stowed  closely  and  tightly.  To  increase  the  remunerative 
load  per  vehicle,  a  special  type  of  waggon  was  designed.  It 
was  of  skeleton  form,  fitted  with  racks  to  receive  the  barrels. 
In  this  manner  the  load  per  vehicle  was  doubled  with  ease, 
and  consequently  the  transportation  charges  were  reduced 
by  virtually  50  per  cent.  Reaching  the  seaboard,  the  barrels 
were  slung  out  by  cranes  and  stowed  in  the  holds  of  waiting 
vessels,  just  as  barrels  of  apples  are  packed  to  this  day.  But 
no  matter  how  ingeniously  the  cargo  was  packed,  there  was 
a  considerable  waste  of  valuable  space,  represented  by  the 
gaps  between  the  barrels. 

The  barrel  car  has  practically  disappeared.  It  has  been 
superseded  by  the  bulk  tank  cars — huge  cylindrical  vessels 
lying  on  their  side,  and  strapped  to  the  deck  of  the  flat 
truck,  provided  with  a  dome  through  which  the  oil  is  dis- 
charged into  the  vessel,  and  with  simple  facilities  for  drawing 
it  off  when  required.  In  Great  Britain  the  tank  car  generally 
ranges  from  8  to  15  tons  capacity,  but  in  the  New  World 
vehicles  carrying  50  or  more  tons  are  the  standard  type. 

The  tank  car  has  completely  revolutionized  the  system 
of  railway  transportation.  Packing  the  barrels,  even  in  the 
special  rack  cars,  was  slow  work.  To-day  a  train-load  of 
oil  can  be  made  up  in  a  matter  of  minutes.  At  the  refinery 
sidings  are  laid  down,  and  between  each  track  extends  a 
pipe-line,  with  an  adjustable  spout,  very  similar  in  design 
to  the  apparatus  employed  for  charging  locomotives  with 
water.  The  train  of  cars  is  backed  into  the  siding,  and  a 


METHODS  OF  DISTRIBUTING  REFINED  OILS    259 

dozen  or  more  spouts  are  connected  to  as  many  cars.  The 
taps  are  turned  on,  and  all  the  vehicles  are  charged  simul- 
taneously. In  this  manner  a  train  of  oil  vehicles  half  a  mile 
or  so  in  length  is  ready  for  movement  within  an  incredibly 
short  period ;  in  fact,  a  hundred  bulk  cars  may  be  loaded 
up  in  less  time  than  was  formerly  required  for  loading  a 
barrel  vehicle.  The  introduction  of  the  bulk  tank  car  and 
the  modern  method  of  loading  and  discharging  have  brought 
about  a  considerable  displacement  of  labour.  Fifty  men  are 
able  to  supervise  the  loading  of  one  hundred  cars  or  more 
with  ease.  It  may  be  pointed  out,  however,  that  barrelling 
has  not  been  superseded  entirely.  It  still  prevails  to  meet 
the  requirements  of  certain  markets,  and  is  practised  for  the 
transportation  of  lubricating  oils  and  waxes. 

So  far  as  water  transport  is  concerned,  an  equally  wonder- 
ful transformation  has  taken  place.  The  idea  of  shipping 
in  bulk  by  water  was  tried  first  with  barges.  It  was  not  a 
daring  experiment,  inasmuch  as  the  load  despatched  in  this 
manner  was  somewhat  limited.  But  the  advantages 
accruing  from  the  system,  together  with  the  pronounced 
saving  in  time  and  money  achieved  thereby,  prompted 
further  development.  The  capacity  of  barges  increased 
rapidly,  until  now  craft  of  this  type  capable  of  carrying 
from  100  to  300  tons  of  oil  are  used  extensively. 

From  the  bulk  barge  to  the  bulk  steamer  was  not  a  far 
cry.  The  shipbuilder  recognized  a  new  and  lucrative  field 
for  the  practice  of  his  craft,  and  seized  the  opportunity. 
The  experiment  was  tried  first  upon  the  relatively  quiet 
inland  waters.  The  whaleback,  so  called  from  the  fact 
that  the  hull  of  the  steamer  resembles  this  fish,  first  at- 
tracted attention  in  this  direction.  Comparatively  small 
vessels  were  built  at  first,  because  the  oil  interests  move 
warily  when  any  new  or  revolutionary  idea  in  transport  is 
advocated.  But  the  simplicity,  efficiency,  and  cheapness 
of  the  method  could  not  be  gainsaid.  The  possibility  of 
reducing  water-transit  charges  to  an  insignificant  figure 
was  revealed,  and  was  embraced  without  further  hesitation. 
The  whaleback  oil-tanker  grew  in  size  rapidly,  until  to-day 


26o         THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

vessels  of  this  type  are  in  regular  service  carrying  10,000 
tons — over  2,250,000  gallons — of  oil  in  a  single  cargo. 

Meantime  the  idea  of  bulk  water  transit  had  spread  to 
the  ocean  traffic.  A  special  type  of  vessel,  known  as  the 
"  oil-tanker,"  had  been  created.  Here  again  advance  was 
gradual.  The  first  vessels  of  the  type  were  comparatively 
small,  carrying  1,000  tons  or  so;  but  once  the  advantages 
of  the  system  were  established,  a  rapid  development  ensued. 
To-day  the  tanker  plies  the  seven  seas  carrying  nothing 
but  oil  to  feed  the  hungry  markets  of  the  world. 

The  oil-tanker  is  an  interesting  example  of  shipbuilding 
handicraft,  and  incidentally  it  is  one  of  the  safest  ships 
ploughing  the  ocean.  It  is  divided  into  three  sections; 
the  forepart,  or  bow,  which  is  reserved  to  the  requirements 
of  the  crew;  the  central  section,  where  the  oil  is  carried; 
and  the  stern,  in  which  the  propelling  machinery  is  dis- 
posed. The  central,  or  oil-carrying,  section  is  insulated  at 
either  end  by  two  very  strong  bulkheads,  separated  by  a 
space  of  some  18  inches.  The  oil  section  itself  is  divided 
into  a  number  of  rectangular  cells,  the  walls  of  which  extend 
from  the  deck-level  to  the  bottom,  while  a  longitudinal 
bulkhead  extends  the  fuU  length  of  the  tank.  The  cells 
or  wells  are  self-contained,  so  that  various  grades  of  oil 
may  be  carried  in  one  cargo.  These  vessels  are  of  immense 
strength;  disasters  among  them  are  very  few  and  far  be- 
tween. During  the  early  weeks  of  the  year  1914  one  was 
caught  in  a  terrible  gale  off  the  evil  Florida  coast,  and, 
under  the  severe  pommelling  of  the  waves,  broke  in  two,  and 
went  to  the  bottom.  But  this  disaster  was  attributed  to 
individual  structural  weakness,  and  to  no  fault  in  the  type 
itself.  Seeing  that  the  tankers  ride  the  fierce  storms  of 
the  Atlantic  and  the  unusually  tempestuous  seas  prevailing 
between  the  Dutch  East  Indies  and  Europe  without  ex- 
periencing the  slightest  damage,  ample  evidence  is  offered  of 
their  stability  and  seaworthiness. 

This  method  of  shipping  oil  by  water  has  reduced  the 
problem  of  loading  and  discharging  to  the  acme  of  sim- 
plicity. At  the  wharves  flexible  hoses  are  connected 


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METHODS  OF  DISTRIBUTING  REFINED  OILS    261 

between  the  shore  tanks  and  the  ship  pipes  leading  to  the 
various  wells.  The  pumps  are  set  to  work,  and  torrents  of 
oil  are  moved  in  either  direction  continuously  until  the  vessel 
has  either  been  loaded  or  discharged.  One  has  only  to  bear 
in  mind  the  task  of  loading  and  unloading  a  collier  to 
recognize  the  advantages  of  oil.  There  is  an  absence  of 
dirt,  noise,  and  scurrying  mechanical  and  human  labour. 
Grating  and  grinding  winches,  rattling  chains  and  cables, 
and  crunching  grabs  give  way  to  a  low  purring  of  the  pumps. 
A  line  or  two  of  pipes  drooping  from  the  decks  to  the  wharf 
are  the  only  visible  signs  that  the  cargo  is  under  removal. 
The  celerity  with  which  a  full  load  may  be  taken  on  board 
or  transferred  to  shore  is  equally  astonishing.  In  many 
instances  an  8,ooo-tonner  completes  its  duty  upon  a  single 
tide. 

The  oil-tanker  is  found  in  every  part  of  the  world.  Water 
distribution  is  the  cheapest  means  of  placing  the  petroleum 
products  of  the  Russian  Caucasus  upon  the  scattered  markets 
of  the  Russian  Empire.  The  Nobels,  who  are  to  Russia 
what  the  Standard  Oil  Company  is  to  America,  have  vessels 
moving  to  and  fro  along  the  great  waterways  every  day  and 
night  during  the  season  of  navigation,  picking  up  their  loads 
at  strategical  centres.  In  this  particular  development  the 
Russian  company  is  far  ahead  of  its  American  competitor. 
Instead  of  using  steam  for  the  propulsion  of  the  vessels,  the 
oil-engine  is  employed  almost  exclusively.  The  advantages 
are  incalculable.  Less  space  is  required  for  the  accommo- 
dation of  the  propelling  machinery,  and  more  room  rendered 
available  for  paying  cargo,  otherwise  oil.  The  oil-engine 
requires  a  smaller  staff  to  watch  its  smooth  working,  so  that 
there  is  an  appreciable  diminution  in  the  labour  and  wages 
bill,  while  the  item  of  maintaining  and  feeding  the  crew  is 
reduced  correspondingly.  The  oil-engine  can  be  started  up 
at  a  moment's  notice,  and  does  not  consume  fuel  during 
periods  of  inactivity,  such  as  occur  while  it  is  shedding  a 
portion  of  its  cargo  at  a  wayside  town,  as  does  the  steam 
engine.  But  for  the  crude-oil  engine  it  is  doubtful  whether 
the  Russian  company  could  undertake  the  delivery  and  vend- 


262         THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

ing  of  its  products  in  its  own  market  at  a  price  which  secures 
it  against  competition. 

On  the  Great  Lakes  of  America  the  tanker  driven  by  the 
oil-engine  has  made  its  appearance,  and  is  challenging  the 
supremacy  of  its  steam-driven  rival  very  seriously.  The 
movement  is  in  its  infancy,  only  two  or  three  vessels  of 
this  type  being  in  operation  at  the  moment ;  but  the  success 
so  far  achieved  augurs  well  for  the  more  extensive  applica- 
tion of  the  idea.  In  this  instance  the  oil-engine  is  competing 
against  cheap  fuel  for  steam-raising,  but  little  doubt  exists 
that  the  oil-driven  ship  will  triumph,  in  which  event  the 
steam-propelled  tanker  will  vanish  from  the  scene.  Bulk 
barging  of  oil  is  practised  almost  exclusively  wherever  the 
conditions  will  not  permit  power  propulsion.  It  is  cheaper 
than  carriage  by  rail,  although  it  is  slower;  but  the  many 
advantages  of  this  system  of  conveyance  far  outweigh  the 
drawbacks.  Practically  the  whole  of  the  oil  destined  for 
the  storage-tanks  scattered  throughout  London  is  moved 
by  barges,  the  Government  having  prohibited  the  passage 
of  ocean-going  craft  engaged  in  this  business  beyond  the 
point  known  as  Thames  Haven,  thirty  miles  below  London 
Bridge. 

The  immensity  of  the  fleet  engaged  in  the  transportation 
of  oil  conveys  some  intimation  of  the  huge  proportions  of 
this  industry.  The  Standard  Oil  Company  has  over  120 
tankers  engaged  in  its  foreign  trade  alone,  ranging  up  to 
9,000  tons,  or  3,000,000  gallons,  capacity.  Parenthetically 
it  may  be  observed  that  the  greater  number  of  these  vessels, 
certainly  the  largest,  have  been  built  in  British  shipyards. 
The  company,  in  accordance  with  its  guiding  precept  of 
manufacturing  everything  possible  for  its  own  needs,  once 
essayed  the  construction  of  these  vessels,  but  the  effort 
was  disastrous.  True,  this  attempt  was  confined  to  bulk 
oil-barges,  but  this  slender  experience  was  sufficient  to  prove 
that  it  could  purchase  far  cheaper  in  the  open  market. 
Incidentally  it  revealed  the  salient  fact  that  the  design 
and  building  of  this  craft  is  a  highly  specialized  branch  of 
marine  engineering.  In  addition  to  this  ocean-going  fleet, 


METHODS  OF  DISTRIBUTING  REFINED  OILS    263 

it  owns  hundreds  of  barges,  tugs,  and  launches,  all  of  which 
are  engaged  exclusively  in  the  movement  of  oil. 

But  the  most  forceful  illustration  of  this  phase  of  activity 
is  revealed  by  the  Eagle  Oil  Transport  Company,  a  sub- 
sidiary concern,  controlled  by  Lord  Cowdray,  in  connection 
with  the  exploitation  of  the  oil-fields  of  Mexico.  To  meet 
the  situation  arising  from  the  prolific  yield  of  Mexican 
oil,  this  company  placed  a  single  order  for  twenty  tankers 
to  ply  between  Mexican  and  British  ports.  Nine,  aggre- 
gating 89,000  tons,  were  ordered  from  one  firm,  Messrs. 
Swan,  Hunter,  and  Wigham  Richardson,  Ltd.,  of  Walls- 
end-on-Tyne,  who  have  made  a  peculiar  study  of  the  oil- 
carrying  industry. 

Of  this  big  Eagle  fleet  no  less  than  ten  are  of  15,500  tons 
deadweight  capacity  each.  In  one  stroke  the  carrying 
dimensions  of  the  tanker  were  doubled.  An  interesting 
incident  in  shipbuilding  construction  may  be  related  in 
connection  with  this  enterprise.  On  one  day  two  15,500- 
tonners  were  engaged  upon  their  trials,  while  two  vessels, 
each  of  9,000  tons,  were  launched  the  following  day,  repre- 
senting no  less  than  50,000  tons  carrying  capacity,  and  this 
for  one  company  !  If  the  fleet  of  this  organization  were 
placed  end  to  end,  it  would  measure  over  one  and  three- 
quarter  miles  in  length,  and  if  all  the  vessels  were  en  route  to 
Great  Britain  at  one  and  the  same  time  with  full  cargoes, 
over  250,000  tons  of  oil — 75,000,000  gallons — would  be 
afloat.  The  fact  that  this  one  fleet  came  into  being  within 
less  than  two  years  conveys  a  graphic  idea  of  the  marvellous 
growth  and  vitality  of  the  oil  industry. 

These  15,500-tonners  are  the  largest  vessels  yet  laid  down 
for  this  peculiar  business.  They  are  virtually  sister-ships, 
so  that  a  description  of  the  one  applies  broadly  to  the  others. 
The  San  Fraterno,  built  at  the  Wallsend  shipyards,  was  the 
first  of  this  class  to  be  brought  into  use.  Built  upon  the 
Isherwood  longitudinal  framing  system — the  latest  word 
in  shipbuilding — she  measures  548  feet  in  length.  The 
15,700  tons — 4,710,000  gallons — of  oil  which  she  is  able  to 
carry  are  distributed  among  twelve  holds,  divided  into 


264         THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

twenty-four  compartments  by  a  longitudinal  bulkhead. 
She  is  equipped  with  quadruple  expansion  engines,  fired  on 
the  Wallsend-Howden  system,  capable  of  developing  a 
speed  of  nj-  knots  per  hour,  although  upon  her  trials,  under 
laden  conditions,  she  exceeded  the  contract  by  £  knot,  and 
with  only  three  of  her  four  boilers  in  operation.  The  cargo- 
tanks  are  fitted  with  steam-heating  coils,  which,  rendering 
the  oil  more  fluid  by  raising  its  temperature,  facilitates 
discharging.  Her  pumps  are  able  to  handle  1,200  tons  of 
oil  per  hour,  so  that  the  full  load  of  15,700  tons  may  be 
transferred  from  ship  to  shore  in  less  than  fourteen  hours. 
The  first  run  under  service  conditions  exceeded  all  expecta- 
tions. The  round  trip  between  Britain  and  Mexico  was 
completed  at  an  average  speed  of  over  n  knots,  and  this 
for  the  hourly  consumption  of  about  i£  tons  of  oil  for  three 
out  of  the  four  boilers.  These  results  for  a  ship  of  these 
dimensions  and  tonnage  are  considered  to  be  highly  satis- 
factory. 

Although  the  construction  of  a  vessel  of  15,500  tons 
carrying  capacity  indicated  a  huge  step  forward,  it  by  no 
means  represents  the  limits  of  the  shipbuilder  in  this  direc- 
tion. A  few  years  hence,  and  we  shall  have  the  3O,ooo-ton 
tanker,  so  insistent  is  the  cry  for  oil,  and  so  imperative  the 
necessity  to  reduce  carry  ing  charges  to  the  minimum.  The 
shipbuilder  is  ready  to  supply  such  a  huge  vessel,  which 
will  exceed  in  length  and  size  many  of  the  liners  afloat 
to-day,  the  moment  the  occasion  arises.  Such  a  develop- 
ment is  no  wild  phantasy.  When  one  recalls  the  huge  craft 
which  are  employed  upon  the  Great  Lakes  of  America  for 
the  conveyance  of  iron  ore  and  grain,  and  recollects  that  the 
wonderful  growth  of  these  vessels  is  a  matter  of  only  a  few 
years,  it  will  be  realized  that  the  coming  of  the  30,000- ton 
tanker  is  merely  a  question  of  money. 

The  retail  distribution  upon  land  also  has  undergone 
radical  improvements.  Formerly  the  retail  trader  was 
compelled  to  buy  his  paraffin — this  was  the  only  product 
in  pronounced  demand  at  the  time— in  large  drums  ranging 
up  to  52  gallons  capacity.  Purchases  in  smaller  quantities 


'o  i 


O         3 

o    - 
as     g 

£ 


I    I 


a  j 


'TWEEN  DECKS  ox  THE  "  SAN  FRATERXO." 

Showing  hatchways  to  tanks  and  pipes  through  which  the  oil  is  pumped. 


OIL-TAXKS   OF  THE    "  SAX   FRATERXO." 
Hatchways  open,  showing  special  oil-tight  coverings  and  hatch-lccking  devices. 


To  face  page  265. 


METHODS  OF  DISTRIBUTING  REFINED  OILS    265 

were  impossible,  owing  to  the  difficulties  of  transport  from 
the  refineries.  The  consumer  had  to  repair  to  the  shop 
with  his  bottle,  can,  or  other  vessel,  to  secure  the  loose 
quantity  he  desired,  whether  it  was  a  pint,  quart,  gallon,  or 
more.  This  system  proved  disadvantageous.  A  tradesman 
having  only  a  limited  connection  was  not  in  the  position  to 
pay  for  his  barrel  of  oil  upon  delivery;  the  vendors  were 
compelled  to  extend  credit,  to  wait  until  the  shopman  had 
cleared  his  stock,  so  that  the  practice  of  paying  for  one  upon 
delivery  of  the  succeeding  consignment  came  into  vogue. 

To  remove  this  disability,  an  ingenious  individual  con- 
ceived the  idea  of  retailing  the  oil  in  any  desired  quantity 
from  bulk  vehicles.  For  this  purpose  he  contrived  what  is 
now  known  as  the  road  tank  waggon,  which  is  really  a 
diminutive  edition  of  the  bulk  railway  car,  adapted  to  high- 
road service,  and  hauled  either  by  animals  or  power.  At 
first  the  road  tanker  was  loaded  at  the  railway -station  direct 
from  the  bulk  railway  car,  which  was  stored  in  a  siding 
until  emptied.  The  road  tanker  was  driven  from  customer 
to  customer,  who  was  able  to  purchase  the  exact  quantity 
he  desired,  instead  of  the  huge  barrel  which  often  contained 
sufficient  to  last  him  for  months.  The  distributor  received 
a  cash  payment  upon  the  transaction,  and  in  many  instances 
he  sold  paraffin  direct  to  the  consumer,  especially  in  country 
districts.  This  procedure  enabled  the  unsatisfactory  ex- 
tended credit  system  to  be  abolished.  The  rural  dweller 
appreciated  this  novel  departure,  because,  by  establishing 
a  regular  round,  he  knew  exactly  when  the  distributor 
would  call  again,  and  could  purchase  sufficient  stock  to 
carry  him  over  the  interval. 

Once  the  advantages  of  the  idea  were  appreciated,  the 
system  extended  rapidly.  The  Standard  Oil  Company  was 
urged  to  adopt  a  similar  practice,  but  hesitated,  because  the 
investment  in  the  road  tank  waggons  would  be  heavy,  and 
because  it  feared  that  such  a  method  of  distribution  might 
prove  more  costly  than  that  in  vogue,  since  the  expenditure 
would  not  be  confined  to  the  tank  waggons,  but  would 
involve  the  establishment  of  innumerable  storage  depots 


266         THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

where  the  road  tank  waggon  could  receive  supplies.  These 
depots  were  indispensable;  the  side-tracking  of  the  laden 
railway  car  was  satisfactory  so  far  as  it  went,  but  this 
arrangement  involved  the  temporary  withdrawal  from 
service  of  a  carrying  unit.  However,  a  trial  was  made  upon 
a  small  scale  in  a  certain  district,  and  yet  upon  lines  suffi- 
ciently comprehensive  to  test  the  project  completely. 

At  first  the  benefits  of  the  movement  were  somewhat 
obscured  by  other  factors,  so  that  a  certain  feeling  of  doubt 
prevailed.  But  when  the  two  systems  of  distribution  were 
analyzed  thoroughly,  the  company  discovered  that  economies 
were  possible  in  various  directions,  while  there  were  the 
additional  advantages  accruing  from  a  cash  transaction. 
The  factor  which  stood  out  most  prominently,  however, 
was  the  saving  in  the  cost  of  the  barrels  and  transportation 
charges. 

Equipped  with  this  experience,  the  company  embarked 
upon  a  systematic  rearrangement  of  its  land  distribution 
scheme.  The  whole  country  was  mapped  out  upon  a  com- 
prehensive scale,  while  the  area  of  each  district  which  could 
be  fed  adequately  from  a  central  storage -point  was  deter- 
mined. This  development  proved  a  critical  one  in  the 
history  of  the  company,  one  in  which  the  power  of  capital 
was  illustrated  very  strikingly.  To  carry  the  idea  to  its 
logical  conclusion  involved  the  investment  of  millions 
sterling,  but  the  situation  was  faced  boldly.  Depots  were 
established  at  railway -stations  and  at  suitable  points  along 
the  waterways  accessible  by  barges.  The  depot  was  simple 
enough,  though  effective.  A  cylindrical  tank,  either  of  the 
vertical  or  horizontal  pattern,  was  erected,  its  capacity 
varying  according  to  local  exigencies;  hose  couplings  were 
provided  for  charging  the  tanks  either  from  a  railway  tank 
car  or  bulk  barge,  and  to  load  the  road  vehicle;  while  a 
stable  to  accommodate  the  distribution  tank  waggons  and 
the  horses  completed  the  installation. 

Each  depot  was  made  a  complete  unit.  The  distributing 
agent  was  given  the  area  of  the  territory  to  be  covered 
from  that  point,  and  was  left  to  work  out  his  own  round 


METHODS  OF  DISTRIBUTING  REFINED  OILS    267 

and  service  supply  to  consumers.  Years  were  occupied  in 
completing  the  organization  of  this  distribution  scheme,  but 
it  has  proved  one  of  the  most  successful  enterprises  ever 
essayed  by  the  company.  To-day  there  is  not  a  village  or  a 
settlement  where  the  familiar  tank  is  not  to  be  seen,  while 
the  waggon  often  makes  long  trips  across  the  desert,  or 
through  the  dense  forest,  to  serve  some  lonely  dweller  with 
the  "  poor  man's  light."  There  are  a  round  3,350  of  these 
subsidiary  depots  scattered  throughout  the  length  and 
breadth  of  the  United  States,  while  over  5,000  tank  waggons 
ply  to  and  fro  between  these  depots  and  the  local  sources  of 
consumption. 

The  scheme  proved  so  completely  satisfactory  that,  upon 
the  completion  of  the  home  network,  the  company  decided 
to  operate  its  foreign  business  upon  similar  lines.  Hitherto 
all  foreign  sales  of  oil  had  been  negotiated  through  com- 
mission agents.  This  system  was  abolished.  The  company 
entered  every  country,  and  in  Great  Britain,  France,  Ger- 
many, Russia,  and  so  on,  created  subsidiary  companies  to 
watch  and  develop  its  business.  Bulk-stations  have  been 
erected  at  convenient  seaboard  points  in  each  country, 
while  subsidiary  depots  have  been  established  at  railway- 
stations  and  other  strategical  centres.  The  half-buried 
white  tank  of  the  "  Standard  "  is  a  familiar  sight  at  the 
railway-stations  of  Great  Britain  and  Continental  countries. 
Fleets  of  supply  waggons  were  inaugurated  to  do  the  same 
work  as  in  the  United  States.  No  country  was  overlooked, 
no  matter  how  indifferent  the  outlook  appeared.  Trade 
could  be  created  by  the  skilful  disposition  of  competent 
men  expert  in  the  art  of  canvassing,  quick  to  recognize  the 
peculiarities  of  local  conditions,  and  possessed  with  the 
ability  to  devise  ways  and  means  of  meeting  them  success- 
fully. 

The  seed  thus  sown  so  diligently  speedily  ripened.  The 
missionaries  of  commerce  planted  here,  there,  and  every- 
where by  the  company,  fulfilled  their  appointed  tasks  to 
perfection.  The  coolie  pushes  his  small  cylindrical  tank 
carried  upon  a  two-wheeled  truck  to  the  innermost  recesses 


268         THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

of  China;  the  Hindu  laboriously  drives  his  primitive  craft 
up  the  backwaters  of  the  India  rivers  to  unload  his  cargo 
of  oil;  the  slow-moving  bullock-team  hitched  to  the  two- 
wheeled  cart  carrying  the  ubiquitous  tank  penetrates  the 
blistering  plains  of  the  Orient ;  the  pack  trains  of  mules  and 
ponies  move  swiftly,  amid  clouds  of  dust,  across  the  African 
desert,  bearing  their  loads  of  oil  to  the  dark  interior ;  the 
camel  with  its  consignment  of  oil  steadily  ploughs  its  way 
across  the  sea  of  sand  to  the  isolated  community  cut  off 
from  all  other  means  of  communication.  No  territory  is 
too  far  removed  from  the  bounds  of  civilization,  or  too 
inaccessible  for  the  American  oil  company.  In  this  manner 
the  organization  has  built  up  a  round  200  stations  among 
the  countries  of  the  world  where  oil  may  be  received  in 
bulk  from  the  tankers,  over  5,000  distributing-stations  to 
feed  local  requirements,  and  a  huge  fleet  of  4,000  tank 
waggons  to  ply  the  roads,  Bush  paths,  and  Indian  trails 
day  in  and  day  out.  The  activity  of  this  company  may 
perhaps  be  better  realized  when  it  is  stated  that  a  round 
60  per  cent,  of  the  oil  which  it  refines  finds  a  market  outside 
the  United  States.  No  other  oil-producing  country  in  the 
world  extends  its  tentacles  so  far,  or  has  woven  such  an 
intricate  and  serviceable  system  of  distribution. 

The  success  of  the  Standard  is  not  due  to  waiting  for  cus- 
tomers to  come,  but  to  its  wonderful  enterprise  in  creating 
business.  Thus,  it  not  only  supplies  paraffin  among  the 
various  nations,  but  stimulates  a  demand  for  the  com- 
modity. The  tank  waggons  penetrating  to  isolated  districts 
carry  lamps  and  stoves.  They  are  strong,  serviceable, 
cheap,  and  attractive.  The  agent  explains  the  uses  and  ad- 
vantages of  these  articles,  and  urges  the  prospective  user  to 
give  them  a  trial.  The  latter  is  impressed,  acts  upon  the 
suggestion,  and  is  gratified  by  the  results.  The  articles  are 
retained,  and  the  demand  for  the  oil  immediately  ensues. 
It  may  mean  the  supply  only  of  i  gallon  per  week  to  that 
one  domicile;  but  when  such  results  are  multiplied  by 
thousands,  a  rich  harvest  is  reaped  in  the  aggregate.  The 
lamps  and  stoves  are  sold  at  cost  price,  no  profit  is  made 


HOW   MEXICAN   OILS   ARE    DELIVERED    IN    BRITAIN. 

Motor  traction  is  adopted.     The  cylindrical  tank  carries  the  products  in  bulk,  enabling  any 
desired  quantity  to  be  drawn  on. 


THE   MOTOR   DELIVERY   OF   CASED   OIL   PRODUCTS. 
Motor  spirit,  certain  lubricating  oils,  and  greases,  are  delivered  in  cans  and  tins. 


To  face  $agc  269. 


METHODS  OF  DISTRIBUTING  REFINED  OILS     269 

out  of  them;  but  each  represents  a  certain  outlet  for  the 
oil,  and  this  is  where  the  profits  are  won. 

Other  companies,  with  one  or  two  exceptions,  have  not 
practised  this  system  with  the  energy  of  the  American  rival. 
Perhaps  the  one  outstanding  exception  which  eclipses  all 
others  is  that  controlled  by  Lord  Cowdray.  When  he 
entered  the  oil  industry  by  opening  up  the  Mexican  fields,  he 
encountered  fierce  opposition  from  the  forces  in  possession, 
which  were  allied  to  the  Standard  Oil  Company.  The 
Waters-Pierce  Company,  to  quote  its  official  designation, 
"  held  a  monopoly  " ;  but  such  a  slight  value  was  placed  upon 
the  Mexican  petroleum  that  it  virtually  confined  its  energies 
to  the  sale  of  the  native  crude  oil  for  power  purposes.  Some 
highly  remunerative  contracts  had  been  completed  with 
certain  Mexican  railways  in  this  connection.  But  practi- 
cally all  the  lighter  oils  which  were  required  were  purchased 
and  shipped  from  the  United  States,  and  the  import  duty  on 
such  products  paid. 

The  British  interests  changed  all  this.  The  lighter  prod- 
ucts of  the  oil  were  distilled  upon  the  spot,  to  the  benefit 
of  Mexican  labour  and  finances,  and  were  exported  to 
Europe.  At  the  same  time  it  was  decided  to  create  a  market 
both  for  refined  products  and  the  fuel  oil  locally.  The 
company  in  possession  construed  this  movement  into  an 
encroachment  upon  its  preserves,  and  a  spirited  commercial 
war  broke  out.  The  Mexican  Eagle  Company  accepted  the 
challenge,  and  startled  the  American  concern  by  its  aggres- 
siveness, tirelessness,  energy,  and  enterprise.  The  British 
concern  had  a  refinery  at  Minatitlan  capable  of  handling 
1,400  tons  of  crude  oil  daily,  and  miles  of  light  railways  and 
pipe-lines  were  in  operation.  It  despatched  its  drillers  and 
engineers  in  all  directions  to  search  for  oil.  It  was  evident 
that,  having  planted  their  feet  in  the  country,  the  British 
interests  were  resolved  to  leave  no  stone  unturned  to  secure 
supremacy. 

The  foundations  of  the  industry  being  firmly  laid,  the 
British  company  decided  to  carry  the  war  into  the  enemy's 
camp,  and  to  combat  it  with  its  own  weapons.  An  elaborate 


270         THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

distribution  system  was  evolved,  and  put  into  execution 
without  delay.  Contracts  were  completed  with  railways 
for  the  supply  of  fuel  oil.  Tanks  were  erected  at  the  de- 
sired stations  where  the  locomotives  could  rebunker.  Rail- 
ways which  hesitated  to  adopt  liquid  fuel  were  coaxed  and 
tempted  to  make  the  experiment  upon  a  limited  scale, 
and,  gratified  with  the  success  and  economies  resulting  from 
this  system  of  steam-raising,  abandoned  coal  for  oil.  One 
company,  in  fact,  was  able  to  save  no  less  than  40  per  cent, 
upon  its  daily  fuel  bill. 

The  country  was  also  overrun  by  "  live  "  agents.  Within 
a  short  space  of  time  no  fewer  than  160  depots  for  the  sale 
of  oils,  lubricants,  and  other  products  of  the  refinery  were 
in  thorough  working  order.  The  demand,  in  fact,  became 
so  heavy  that  further  refining  facilities  were  required  to 
keep  pace  with  the  situation.  Accordingly  a  huge  refining 
plant,  capable  of  treating  4,000  tons  of  crude  oil  a  day, 
was  set  up  at  Tampico.  The  bid  for  trade  in  Mexico  proving 
so  successful,  the  agents  roved  farther  afield.  They  pene- 
trated the  Southern  United  States,  where  the  railways,  faced 
with  the  high  price  of  coal,  which  had  to  be  hauled  over 
long  distances,  were  driven  to  oil  fuel .  The  British  company 
assured  these  railways  of  an  adequate  supply  of  this  fuel 
from  the  Mexican  fields,  and,  prices  being  right,  long-term 
contracts  for  huge  quantities  were  settled.  Thus,  to-day 
the  British-operated  Mexican  oil  industry  not  only  meets 
the  greater  portion  of  the  Mexican  demands,  but  an  appre- 
ciable volume  of  the  requirements  of  the  Southern  United 
States  in  this  particular  line  also. 

The  British  market  was  cultivated  similarly.  The  oil- 
carrying  fleet  was  inaugurated,  but  before  it  came  into  being 
reliance  had  to  be  placed  upon  chartered  vessels.  At  Man- 
chester a  tract  of  ground  was  acquired,  and  here  a  tank 
farm  capable  of  containing  31,000  tons  of  oil  was  laid  down. 
Scores  of  15-ton  railway  tank  cars  were  ordered  to  distribute 
the  commodities  throughout  these  islands,  while  road  tank 
waggons  of  the  latest  type  and  mechanically  driven  were 
purchased.  The  pace  set  was  so  hot  that  competition  was 


METHODS  OF  DISTRIBUTING  REFINED  OILS    271 

speedily  outdistanced ;  so  much  so  that  to-day  more  fuel  oil 
is  imported  into  these  islands  from  Mexico  than  from  all 
other  oil-producing  countries  combined. 

The  enterprise  and  energy  which  had  achieved  such 
striking  results  was  concentrated  upon  other  countries  in 
turn.  The  South  American  railways,  which  have  to  import 
coal  from  other  parts  of  the  world,  were  attracted  to  the 
economies  accruing  from  the  use  of  oil,  and  substantial 
contracts  were  completed.  Even  Russia  was  invaded, 
though  she  is  generally  regarded  as  a  difficult  country  for 
competitive  interests  to  enter,  owing  to  the  power  wielded 
by  the  Nobels  and  the  heavy  import  duties.  Notwithstand- 
ing the  huge  quantities  of  fuel  oil,  or  "  mashut,"  as  it  is 
called,  which  are  produced  from  the  Caucasian  wells,  the 
Mexican  product  forced  an  entry,  and  large  quantities  of 
the  commodity  are  being  shipped  to  that  country  for  con- 
sumption upon  the  State  railways.  The  activity  and 
financial  strength  of  the  British-Mexican  interests  to-day 
make  the  one  rival  which  the  leading  American  company  is 
compelled  to  respect. 

Although  bulk  shipment  represents  the  means  whereby 
the  greater  volume  of  oil  is  moved  about  the  world,  packing 
has  not  been  superseded  in  its  entirety.  Thus,  for  instance, 
China  and  the  neighbouring  countries  still  evince  a  marked 
preference  for  the  packed  article.  The  oil  is  "  cased,"  as  it 
is  called.  The  cans  are  of  5  gallons  capacity,  and  two  com- 
prise a  case,  which  thus  contains  10  gallons.  The  tins  and 
cases  are  made  by  machinery,  one  plant  of  the  Standard  Oil 
Company  turning  out  some  350,000  of  these  tins  every 
twenty-four  hours. 

Why,  it  may  be  argued,  seeing  that  bulk  transportation  is 
so  much  cheaper,  is  this  method  still  practised  ?  In  the 
main  it  is  to  meet  a  native  weakness.  The  heathen  Chinese 
and  his  neighbours  are  fascinated  by  that  wooden  box  and 
tin  can.  After  they  have  consumed  the  contents,  the  cans 
are  utilized  for  a  wide  variety  of  purposes.  The  native 
considers  the  can  a  useful,  if  not  ornamental,  flower-pot. 
When  the  can  is  broken  and  the  metal  hammered  out  flat,  it 


272         THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

forms  an  efficient  roofing  material,  and  is  a  serviceable  lining 
for  a  water-tank,  while  there  are  a  hundred  and  one  other 
useful  purposes  which  it  can  be  made  to  fulfil. 

The  outer  wooden  packing-case  is  neatly  fashioned  from 
good,  sound,  and  seasoned  timber.  It  not  only  forms  an 
excellent  firewood,  but  can  be  used  for  a  variety  of  domestic 
purposes,  while  it  is  a  first-class  foundation  for  the  outer  tin 
covering  in  roofing  operations.  The  uses  to  which  these 
materials  are  put  by  the  ingenious  native  are  astonishing. 
While  they  involve  a  somewhat  heavy  outlay,  they  constitute 
a  first-class  advertisement.  If  the  attempt  were  made  to 
sell  the  oil  loosely  among  such  consumers,  the  custom  would 
speedily  disappear.  The  native  appreciates  the  packing  as 
much  as  he  does  the  contents.  Accordingly,  those  catering 
for  the  remunerative  Oriental  business  pander  to  the  native 
foible,  and  in  this  way  have  built  up  an  extensive  clientele. 


CHAPTER  XX 
THE  COMMERCIAL  USES  OF  OIL 

THE  motor-driven  road  vehicle  undoubtedly  represents  the 
most  familiar  illustration  of  the  application  of  oil  to  the 
generation  of  power,  yet  the  annual  consumption  of  liquid 
fuel  in  the  form  of  motor  spirits  is  relatively  insignificant. 
The  strides  which  have  been  made  by  oil  in  the  generation 
of  power,  light,  and  heat  during  the  past  few  years  are 
amazing.  The  day  of  coal's  invincible  supremacy  in  the 
industrial  world  has  passed  never  to  return.  Already  the 
yield  of  oil  represents  about  10  per  cent,  of  the  annual  out- 
put of  coal,  while  for  the  purposes  of  power  production  the 
proportion  has  risen  to  about  15  per  cent. 

The  advantages  of  oil  are  so  pronounced  that  they  cannot 
be  ignored.  It  is  cleaner  to  handle,  simpler  to  control,  and 
offers  an  effective  means  of  reducing  the  fuel  bill,  which, 
otherwise  expressed,  signifies  a  certain  reduction  in  the  cost 
of  producing  an  article.  At  the  present  moment  oil  is  being 
utilized  in  a  round  seventy  trades  and  industries  which  a 
few  years  ago  were  dependent  entirely  upon  coal,  and  this 
range  of  application  is  extending  rapidly. 

Oil  has  revolutionized  every  form  of  transportation — road, 
rail,  and  sea — while  it  has  also  brought  human  flight  within 
the  range  of  possibility.  The  startling  transformation  it 
has  effected  in  highroad  transportation  is  apparent  to  every- 
one. It  has  driven  animal  haulage  from  the  field,  is  threaten- 
ing electricity,  and  has  been  the  means  of  enabling  human 
endeavour  to  achieve  velocities  by  mechanical  propulsion, 
which  a  quarter  of  a  century  ago  would  have  been  regarded 
as  wild  dreams.  The  aeroplane  and  the  automobile  repre- 
sent the  fleetest  forms  of  mechanical  movement  which  have 
been  evolved. 

273  18 


274         THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

But  the  changes  which  have  been,  and  still  are  being,  made 
in  connection  with  movement  by  rail  and  water  are  every 
whit  as  wonderful.  The  motor-ship  has  appeared  upon  the 
scene,  and  although  the  development  of  this  type  of  vessel  is 
exceedingly  slow,  it  is  nevertheless  exceedingly  sure.  The 
Diesel  engine  is  in  its  infancy :  it  is  a  maze  of  imperfections 
and  defects.  But  it  offers  engineering  science  remarkable 
scope  for  activity  and  inventive  ingenuity.  Gradually  the 
slow- speed  engine  burning  liquid  fuel  is  undergoing  improve- 
ment, and,  in  the  course  of  a  few  years,  will  be  rendered  as 
simple,  reliable,  efficient,  and  as  economical  as  its  high-speed 
contemporary  is  to-day.  Whether  the  oil-engined  vessel 
will  usurp  its  steam-propelled  rival  is  another  question.  At 
the  moment  this  is  purely  an  economic  issue.  Oil  now  is 
virtually  as  expensive  as  coal,  if  not  more  so,  but  as  new 
fields  are  brought  into  productivity,  and  the  balance  between 
these  two  factors  becomes  weighted  down  in  favour  of  the 
former,  prices  must  ease. 

It  is  not  with  the  oil-engined  ship  purely  and  simply  that 
liquid  fuel  is  making  such  advances.  The  true  competition 
is  occurring  between  coal  and  oil  as  the  steam-raising  agent. 
Coal  is  dirty,  occupies  considerable  space,  and  reduces  the 
cargo  and  passenger-carrying  capacity  of  a  vessel  very 
materially.  On  the  other  hand,  oil  may  be  stored  where  at 
present  a  useless  article,  from  the  economic  point  of  view, 
has  to  be  carried.  Vessels,  especially  those  engaged  in  the 
passenger-carrying  service  and  the  higher  branches  of 
merchandise  transportation,  are  provided  with  double 
bottoms.  The  space  between  the  two  shells  at  present  is 
wasted;  water  is  introduced  merely  for  ballasting  and 
trimming  purposes.  By  utilizing  oil  as  the  steam-raising 
agent  this  space  may  be  turned  to  profitable  account,  be- 
cause the  fuel  can  be  carried  in  the  double  bottom,  and,  as  it 
is  consumed,  the  vacant  space  can  be  occupied  by  water  to 
maintain  the  trim  of  the  craft. 

The  urgency  of  some  such  system  of  fuel  and  bunkering 
is  revealed  most  potently  in  connection  with  the  high-speed 
liners  which  ply  the  seven  seas,  as  Mr.  J.  J.  Kermode  demon- 


THE  COMMERCIAL  USES  OF  OIL  275 

strated  before  the  London  Oil  Congress  of  1912.  He  took 
the  Mauretania,  the  fastest  passenger  liner  afloat,  to  illustrate 
his  case.  This  vessel  was  built  essentially  for  speed:  every- 
thing was  sacrificed  to  achieve  this  end.  As  is  well  known, 
this  magnificent  vessel,  with  her  engines  developing  68,000 
horse-power,  is  able  to  maintain  a  speed  of  twenty-five  knots 
or  more  between  Liverpool  and  New  York.  To  insure  this 
pace  25  tons  of  coal  have  to  be  fed  into  the  furnaces  by  hand 
every  hour,  which  comes  to  no  less  than  600  tons  per  day. 
Consequently,  to  cover  the  distance  between  the  British  and 
American  ports  5,500  tons  of  coal  have  to  be  taken  on  board, 
while  the  round  trip  requires  some  11,000  tons.  One  has 
only  to  recall  the  space  which  a  single  ton  of  coal  occupies  in 
the  domestic  cellar  to  form  some  idea  of  the  immense  space 
required  to  receive  several  thousand  tons.  Mr.  Kermode 
pointed  out  that,  if  oil  were  used,  3,300  tons  of  liquid  fuel 
would  perform  the  same  amount  of  work  as  is  fulfilled  by 
5,500  tons  of  coal,  so  that  on  the  round  trip  at  least  5,000 
tons  of  fuel  could  be  saved.  Seeing  that  the  whole  of  this 
bulk  could  be  carried  in  the  double  bottom,  the  amount  of 
space  which  would  be  released  for  the  reception  of  cargo  may 
be  imagined.  Assuming  that  £i ,  or  $5 ,  could  be  earned  per 
ton  by  the  carriage  of  merchandise  in  what  is  now  the  coal 
bunkers,  it  is  a  simple  arithmetical  sum  to  calculate  how 
much  the  earning  power  of  the  liner  might  be  increased  by 
the  use  of  liquid  fuel. 

The  saving  in  space  is  only  one  phase  of  the  issue.  Instead 
of  the  furnaces  being  fed  by  hand  labour,  as  is  now  the  case  in 
coal-firing,  mechanical  appliances  would  be  utilized.  In  this 
manner  it  would  be  possible  to  reduce  the  stokehold  army 
from  312  to  30  men.  This  force  would  be  adequate  to  attend 
to  the  oil  burners  and  to  regulate  the  feed-water  to  the 
boilers.  This  displacement  of  trimmers  and  firemen  would 
release  sufficient  space  to  accommodate  an  additional  200 
third-class  passengers,  who  would  be  berthed  in  the  quarters 
at  present  occupied  by  the  stokehold  crew.  Assessing  these 
200  passengers  at  £5,  or  $25,  per  head,  a  further  addition  to 
the  gross  revenue  of  £1,000,  or  $5,000,  would  be  possible. 


276         THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

Even  after  allowing  for  the  difference  in  the  prices  of  the 
two  fuels,  it  is  computed  that  oil  would  enable  the  Mauretania 
to  earn  at  least  £10,000,  or  $50,000,  upon  a  round  trip. 

There  is  another  point  which  must  not  be  overlooked. 
With  coal-firing  it  is  incumbent  to  draw  about  32  of  the  192 
furnaces  every  watch,  to  remove  clinker,  and  for  general 
cleaning  operations.  This  means  that  the  aggregate  energy 
of  the  machinery  is  reduced  from  68,000  to  58,000  horse- 
power. If  oil  were  used  there  would  be  no  necessity  for 
drawing  the  fires;  the  furnaces  could  be  maintained  at  full 
pressure  during  the  voyage  from  shore  to  shore.  In  other 
words,  the  steam-raising  capacity  of  the  ship  would  be  in- 
creased by  over  15  per  cent.,  which  translated  into  speed 
would  enable  from  eight  to  ten  hours  in  the  journey  between 
New  York  and  Queenstown  to  be  saved.  Other  economies 
also  could  be  effected.  At  the  moment  a  large  force  of  men 
is  required  to  bunker  the  liner,  the  task  occupying  about 
twenty  hours.  Were  oil  fuel  used  the  bunkers  could  be 
filled  in  about  three  hours,  and  the  operation  would  entail 
the  employment  of  only  a  handful  of  men.  As  liquid  fuel  is 
moved  between  ship  and  shore  through  pipes,  no  dust  is 
created,  and  there  is  an  absence  of  noise.  The  saving  in 
cleaning  operations  arising  from  coaling,  alone  would  repre- 
sent a  material  economy. 

With  oil  it  will  also  be  possible  to  achieve  what  at  present 
is  out  of  the  question.  The  growing  commerce  of  the  world 
demands  the  reduction  of  time  spent  in  travelling  to  the 
minimum.  Faster  ships  are  required  between  Europe  and 
South  America,  and  accelerated  communication  is  becoming 
urgent  between  the  countries  of  the  Northern  and  Southern 
Hemispheres.  Speedy  liners,  such  as  one  meets  upon  the 
North  Atlantic,  are  impracticable  between  Europe  and  the 
Antipodes,  owing  to  the  inability  to  carry  sufficient  coal  for 
the  whole  voyage,  and  the  absence  of  intermediate  bunker- 
ing stations  upon  the  longer  reaches  of  the  ocean  journey. 
With  oil  these  two  disabilities  could  be  overcome  successfully. 

The  shipping  world  is  fully  alive  to  the  significance  of  the 
issue  and  to  the  advantages  of  oil  fuel.  There  are  abundant 


*  § 


3  1 


O     -3 


RUMELY    PARAFFIX-DRIVEX   OIL   TRACTOR    HAULING   A    COMBINED    HARVESTER 
IN    MONTANA,    U.S.A. 

By  means  of  oil-power  65  acres  of  grain  can  be  cut,  threshed,  and  bagged,  per  day. 


BREAKING   VIRGIN    LAND    BY   THE   AID   OF   OIL. 

"  Rumely  "  paraffin  tractor  pulling  eight  ploughs,  drill,  and  harrow  over  2$  acres  per  hour,  upon  the 
plains  of  North  Dakota,  U.S.A. 


THE  COMMERCIAL  USES  OF  OIL  277 

indications  that,  within  a  few  years,  all  the  crack  ships  of 
the  North  Atlantic,  at  least,  will  depend  upon  liquid  fuel. 
When  the  White  Star  liner  Olympic  was  reconstructed  and 
fitted  with  an  inner  skin,  the  opportunity  was  taken  to  adapt 
the  space  between  the  two  shells  for  bunkering  oil.  The 
Hamburg-American  line  is  making  preparations  to  embrace 
oil  fuel  when  the  moment  arrives.  Substantial  contracts  for 
adequate  supplies  at  convenient  points  have  been  completed. 
It  only  remains  for  one  organization  to  show  the  way;  the 
others  will  be  compelled  to  follow  suit  in  order  to  maintain 
their  relative  positions  in  the  competition  for  traffic. 

The  shipping  pioneers  have  been  busy  in  other  parts  of 
the  world.  The  liner  Niagara,  belonging  to  the  Union  Steam 
Ship  Company,  and  which  plies  between  Australian  ports 
and  Vancouver,  burns  oil  fuel,  and,  in  fact,  was  the  first 
vessel  of  this  character  to  receive  a  certificate  from  the 
British  Board  of  Trade  for  carrying  passengers.  The  Japanese 
liners  running  between  ports  and  the  Pacific  seaboard  of  the 
United  States  are  equipped  for  burning  oil.  Many  cargo 
boats,  exclusive  of  the  oil-tankers,  which,  of  course,  depend 
upon  oil  fuel,  are  fired  with  oil,  and  the  space  released  there- 
by accommodates  increased  paying  load.  No  doubt  oil 
fuel  would  be  used  more  extensively  by  freighters  but  for  one 
drawback.  While  some  bunkering  ports  have  both  fuels 
available,  the  majority  can  supply  coal  only.  This  un- 
certainty is  met  to  a  certain  degree  by  equipping  the  boats 
for  either  coal  or  liquid  fuel,  whichever  is  obtainable,  but 
many  of  those  running  upon  oil  exclusively,  which  are 
engaged  upon  a  scheduled  route,  take  on  sufficient  supplies 
at  the  home  port  to  carry  them  through  the  round  trip. 

Oil  fuel  is  even  more  vital  to  ships  of  war  than  to  those 
engaged  in  the  mercantile  marine;  in  fact,  the  very  existence 
of  a  warship  might  depend  upon  oil.  In  the  first  place  the 
volume  of  smoke  emitted  from  an  oil-fired  vessel  is  insigni- 
ficant—merely a  light,  filmy  wreath— even  when  the  vessel 
is  being  pushed  to  its  utmost ;  whereas  when  stoked  with  coal, 
thick  trails  of  dense  black  smoke  are  thrown  off,  particularly 
when  the  craft  is  driven  hard,  rendering  discovery  by  the 


278          THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

enemy,  even  when  the  latter  is  below  the  horizon,  quite  an 
easy  matter. 

Other  advantages  accruing  from  the  use  of  oil  render  it 
imperative  for  naval  work.  A  vessel's  radius  of  action— 
that  is,  its  mileage  and  work  upon  a  single  fuel  charge— is 
extended  considerably.  When  a  coal-fired  warship  runs 
short  of  fuel,  it  is  compelled  to  make  for  port  to  take  on  fresh 
supplies.  True,  ingenious  devices  have  been  contrived  to 
enable  a  vessel  to  be  coaled  at  sea,  but  so  far  they  have  not 
proved  very  successful,  and  can  only  be  employed  in  the 
calmest  weather.  If  a  warship  were  surprised  in  the  act  of 
coaling  at  sea  it  would  be  caught  at  a  serious  disadvantage, 
because  it  would  be  hampered  by  the  collier,  and  the  tackle 
for  moving  the  coal  from  one  to  the  other,  which  would  take 
a  certain  length  of  time  to  cut  adrift.  On  the  other  hand, 
when  bunkering  with  oil  it  is  only  necessary  to  carry  one  or 
two  lengths  of  hose  from  the  tanker  to  the  warship,  to  couple 
up  the  pipes,  and  to  pump  the  fuel  from  one  to  the  other. 
In  this  instance  the  warship  could  not  be  surprised  very 
effectively.  Release  of  the  pipe  connections  and  the  warship 
would  be  ready  to  meet  its  opponent.  The  facility  with 
which  a  vessel  can  be  bunkered  with  oil  at  sea  enhances  a 
warship's  value,  as  there  is  no  need  for  it  to  return  to  port 
for  long  intervals. 

So  far  as  land  transportation  is  concerned,  the  past  few 
years  have  witnessed  a  wonderful  transformation.  The 
self-propelled  vehicle  fed  with  oil  is  making  startling  con- 
quests in  all  directions.  The  tradesman  depends  upon  the 
motor-driven  cycle-car  and  motor- van  to  serve  his  customers 
more  expeditiously,  and  has  been  enabled  to  offer  prompt 
delivery  over  a  wider  radius — up  to  sixty  miles.  The  taxi- 
cab  has  ousted  the  hansom  from  the  streets,  and  the  motor- 
bus  has  become  established  more  firmly  than  ever,  as  the  poor 
man's  automobile.  The  predominance  of  this  vehicle,  and 
what  it  means  to  the  community,  is  revealed  more  power- 
fully in  the  Old,  than  in  the  New,  World.  It  is  not  only 
regarded  as  a  swift  and  convenient  system  of  transportation 
between  home  and  business,  but  is  regarded  as  a  pleasure 


THE  COMMERCIAL  USES  OF  OIL  279 

vehicle  as  well.  It  enables  the  working-man,  toiling 
laboriously  in  the  sweltering  city  for  six  days,  to  reach  the 
distant  countryside,  fields,  woods,  and  stream  with  its 
invigorating  sweet  pure  air  cheaply,  on  the  seventh  day  of 
the  week.  The  mobility  of  the  vehicle  is  its  outstanding 
characteristic.  Unlike  the  tramway,  it  is  not  condemned 
to  a  road  provided  with  a  pair  of  metals :  it  can  proceed  over 
any  road  or  lane  sufficiently  wide  to  admit  the  passage  of  a 
four-wheeled  vehicle.  The  fact  that  in  London  alone  over 
3,000,000  people  take  the  motor-bus  for  a  breather  in  the 
country  upon  a  Bank  Holiday,  conveys  a  striking  impression 
of  the  popularity  of  this  form  of  locomotion.  In  the  New 
World  the  electric  tramway  holds  predominant  sway,  but 
the  motor-bus  is  as  far  ahead  of  this  form  of  street  locomo- 
tion as  the  tram-car  is  in  advance  of  the  rickshaw.  Indeed, 
in  the  British  Isles  it  promises  to  render  the  electric  rival 
obsolete. 

Wherever  haulage  or  mobile  power  is  required,  the  motor 
is  displacing  animal  effort,  and  other  systems  of  power.  The 
enterprising  farmer  ploughs  his  land,  sows  his  seed,  garners 
his  crops,  and  carries  his  harvest  to  market  by  motor. 
Inability  to  work  in  the  field  does  not  condemn  the  vehicle 
to  idleness ;  it  is  an  invaluable  handmaid  for  the  performance 
of  other  innumerable  duties — threshing  grain,  chopping,  and 
mincing  foodstuffs  for  stock,  sawing  wood,  drawing  water, 
generating  electricity  for  the  lighting  of  the  home,  and  so 
on.  In  breaking  vast  stretches  of  virgin  land,  such  as  the 
prairies  of  Canada  and  the  United  States,  and  the  Steppes  of 
Russia,  the  motor-driven  vehicle  has  wrought  wonders. 
By  its  aid  an  acre  of  land  has  been  broken  in  four  minutes  ! 
Although  steam  traction  has  been  employed  in  this  duty,  the 
cost  of  coal  and  wood,  owing  to  the  long  haulage,  renders  this 
form  of  power  more  expensive  than  oil  fuel ;  hence  the  popu- 
larity of  the  motor  agricultural  tractor.  Incidentally  the 
expansion  of  this  movement  has  created  a  demand  for 
paraffin,  the  lighter  and  more  explosive  spirit  being  some- 
what too  expensive  for  general  farming  operations.  The 
perfection  of  a  reliable  paraffin  vaporizer  still  remains  to 


280         THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

become  numbered  as  a  triumph  of  mechanical  engineering. 
The  problem  is  somewhat  abstruse  and  complex,  but  it  is 
being  attacked  energetically,  with  the  result  that,  if  present 
indications  offer  any  reliable  criterion,  the  time  is  not  far 
distant  when  the  paraffin  vaporizer  will  be  as  perfect  as  the 
carburettor  used  with  the  high-speed  explosion  motor  in 
automobile  practice  to-day.  An  efficient  means  of  vapor- 
izing this  denser  oil  will  exert  a  far-reaching  influence  upon 
the  motor  fuel  situation,  which  is  admitted  to  be  somewhat 
critical ;  the  automobile  will  not  be  condemned  to  operation 
upon  the  more  explosive  series  of  the  refined  products. 

In  railway  transportation  oil  is  offering  a  complete  solu- 
tion of  many  searching  problems.  Many  railways  operate 
in  territories  where  local  fuel  resources  are  unknown;  all 
coal  has  to  be  hauled  immense  distances,  and,  consequently, 
by  the  time  it  reaches  the  centre  of  consumption,  the  trans- 
portation charges  have  inflated  the  prime  cost  of  the  fuel  to 
a  very  pronounced  degree.  In  1889  Mr.  Urquhart  devised 
a  burner  which  enabled  the  residue  from  the  Russian  petro- 
leums to  be  used  as  fuel.  Tests  emphasized  its  value,  and 
forthwith  143  Russian  locomotives  were  equipped .  with 
it.  This  was  a  discovery  of  far-reaching  importance.  The 
quantity  of  residue  or  mashut  available  from  the  Russian 
oils  is  enormous,  and  it  is  obtainable  cheaply;  coal,  on  the 
other  hand,  is  expensive. 

In  Great  Britain  the  late  Mr.  Holden,  while  chief  locomo- 
tive engineer  of  the  Great  Eastern  Railway,  introduced  a 
burner  for  the  atomizing  and  spraying  of  heavy  oil  in  the 
furnaces  of  locomotives,  and  it  was  introduced  upon  one  or 
two  of  the  crack  engines  of  the  system.  The  consumption  of 
oil  in  the  haulage  of  an  express  train  weighing  225  tons  was 
practically  50  per  cent,  less  as  compared  with  coal.  But  in 
Great  Britain,  with  its  huge  deposits  of  coal,  oil  is  faced  with 
a  formidable  competitor.  The  cost  of  the  latter  rose  rapidly 
until  at  last  it  was  found  to  be  cheaper  to  burn  coal  than 
liquid  fuel,  and  accordingly  the  innovation  was  abandoned. 

In  other  countries,  however,  such  as  the  Southern  United 
States,  Mexico,  South  America,  and  certain  European  rail- 


THE  COMMERCIAL  USES  OF  OIL  281 

ways,  there  is  no  such  competition.  For  instance,  on  the 
Mexican  railway,  coal  alone  was  used  during  the  year  1910. 
In  1911  the  company  was  persuaded  to  test  liquid  fuel, 
abundant  quantities  of  which  were  readily  available.  The 
results  were  so  startling  that  by  the  end  of  1912  not  an  ounce 
of  coal  was  being  used  for  the  stoking  of  locomotives  upon 
the  railway.  Experience  proved  that  by  means  of  oil  the 
fuel  consumption  was  reduced  32  per  cent,  per  kilometre. 
Oil  fuel  has  a  higher  calorific  value  than  the  coal  generally 
employed  for  steaming  purposes,  and,  consequently,  a  less 
quantity  is  required  to  fulfil  a  certain  task,  which  means  that 
less  weight  has  to  be  carried  by  the  locomotives.  Oil  may  be 
taken  on  with  greater  ease,  speed,  and  simplicity.  An 
engine's  bunkers  can  be  charged  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
water-tank ;  the  man  performing  the  latter  can  carry  out  the 
former  duty.  Waste  in  loading  is  reduced  to  insignificance, 
while  cost  of  bunkering  is  likewise  negligible.  Other 
economies  are  noticeable.  Oil  produces  no  ash  or  clinker,  so 
that  cleaning  operations  are  avoided. 

With  oil  a  locomotive,  like  a  steamship,  has  a  greater 
radius  of  action — that  is  to  say,  it  can  cover  more  miles 
upon  a  single  charge  of  fuel;  there  is  enhanced  steaming 
power;  the  adjustment  of  the  fuel  to  varying  loads  is  effected 
instantaneously;  steam  is  raised  in  less  time;  there  is  an 
absence  of  smoke;  while  in  tropical  and  semi-tropical 
countries  there  is  no  risk  of  setting  a  forest  or  standing  crops 
on  fire  by  flying  sparks  ejected  from  the  chimney — a  risk 
inseparable  from  coal-firing.  Upon  the  North  American 
continent,  and,  indeed,  in  Australasia,  and  other  countries, 
the  damage  wrought  by  fires  started  from  passing  locomo- 
tives attains  huge  proportions.  The  danger  has  been 
mitigated  to  a  certain  degree  by  fitting  spark  arresters  to 
the  chimneys  of  the  engines,  but  this  precautionary  measure 
has  not  overcome  the  evil  entirely.  The  item  of  compensa- 
tion which  is  disbursed  annually  under  this  heading  by  some 
railways  is  heavy.  With  oil  this  charge  cannot  be  incurred. 
In  the  United  States  the  Government  has  been  urged  to 
enforce  oil-firing  upon  those  railways  traversing  the  belts 


282         THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

where  fires  from  this  cause  are  too  frequent,  and  where 
extreme  devastation  is  wrought.  Many  of  the  American 
railways,  such  as  the  Southern  Pacific,  resort  extensively 
to  oil  for  firing  purposes,  and  now  that  the  difficulties  of 
atomizing  the  fuel,  to  secure  perfect  combustion,  have  been 
solved,  there  is  no  reason,  except  comparative  cost,  why  oil 
should  not  be  used. 

In  Mexico  oil-firing  upon  the  railways  has  progressed 
astonishingly.  About  5,000  miles  of  railways  are  now  in 
operation,  and  the  daily  consumption  of  oil  fuel  exceeds 
10,000  barrels,  or  420,000  gallons.  The  Tehuantepec 
trans-continental  railway,  189  miles  in  length,  the  recon- 
struction of  which  was  carried  out  by  Messrs.  S.  Pearson 
and  Son,  the  well-known  British  contractors,  of  which 
Lord  Cowdray  is  the  presiding  spirit,  runs  entirely  upon  oil. 
This  road  is  by  no  means  one  of  the  easiest  to  operate, 
seeing  that  its  grades  run  up  to  about  112  feet  per  mile, 
while  the  sharpest  curves  are  approximately  of  500  feet 
radius,  limiting  the  train  speed  to  15  miles  per  hour.  On 
this  line  the  comparative  tests  between  coal  and  oil  which 
have  been  carried  out  are  very  illuminating.  The  time 
occupied  in  getting  up  steam  to  180  degrees  pressure  from 
cold  with  coal  is  152  minutes;  with  oil  the  desired  end  is 
achieved  in  70  minutes.  The  consumption  per  100  ton- 
miles  is  20-8  pounds  of  coal  and  10-3  pounds  of  oil.  The 
advantage  in  both  instances  represents  about  50  per  cent. 
With  oil  fuel  improved  speed  is  about  16  per  cent,  on  the 
average,  while  the  improved  evaporation  represents  no  less 
than  90  per  cent.  On  the  Interoceanic  Railway,  which 
connects  Vera  Cruz  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  with  Acapulco 
on  the  Pacific  seaboard,  which  system  has  an  aggregate  of 
1,035  miles  in  operation,  equally  striking  results  have  been 
achieved.  In  raising  steam  from  cold  to  a  pressure  of 
180  pounds  per  square  inch  by  means  of  oil,  28  minutes  are 
saved;  the  improved  speed  with  oil  represents  20  per  cent.; 
and  the  improved  evaporation  per  pound  of  oil  is  no  less 
than  130  per  cent.  The  difference  in  the  fuel  consumption 
is,  perhaps,  more  impressive  since,  whereas  15-07  pounds  of 


THE  COMMERCIAL  USES  OF  OIL  283 

coal  are  required  for  100  ton-miles,  6-85  pounds  of  oil 
achieve  the  same  end.  These  results  are  reflected  upon 
the  railways  of  the  United  States.  In  that  country  the 
oil-fired  locomotives  cover  over  120,000,000  miles  per  annum, 
while  the  oil  consumption  easily  exceeds  33,000,000  barrels 
per  year. 

There  is  another  aspect  of  railway  operation  which  oil 
has  influenced  very  materially .  Modern  economic  conditions 
demand  that  the  revenue-earning  capacity  of  a  train  should 
be  raised  to  the  maximum.  Reduce  train-miles,  but  increase 
ton-miles,  has  become  the  railway-operating  slogan.  This 
means  that  heavier,  larger,  and  more  powerful  locomotives 
must  be  used.  But,  unfortunately,  the  locomotive  engineer, 
depending  upon  coal  fuel,  is  faced  with  an  insurmountable 
obstacle — the  physical  endurance  of  the  fireman.  Efforts 
have  been  made  to  overcome  this  obstacle  by  the  evolution 
of  automatic  stoking  devices.  They  have  met  with  success 
up  to  a  certain  point,  but  they  are  somewhat  complicated 
in  design  and  operation.  With  oil,  as  the  whole  stoking 
operation  is  reduced  to  automatic  action — the  oil  virtually 
handles  itself — no  such  difficulty  arises.  The  labours  of  the 
fireman  are  reduced  to  controlling  the  burners.  This  fact 
has  not  been  ignored  by  the  locomotive  engineer,  and  it 
has  been  responsible  for  the  evolution  of  the  mammoth 
locomotives  peculiar  to  the  United  States.  Take  the 
Mallet  articulated  compounds  which  are  utilized  for  heavy 
duty  upon  the  Southern  Pacific,  for  instance.  These  loco- 
motives are  of  the  2 — 8 — 8 — 2  type,  and  have  a  total  weight, 
engine  and  tender,  ready  for  the  road,  of  277  tons.  Oil-firing 
is  adopted :  with  coal  it  would  be  impossible  to  keep  such  a 
giant  up  to  its  work;  oil  alone  enables  this  end  to  be 
achieved.  Owing  to  the  extreme  length  of  the  engine,  it  is 
run  cab  foremost,  the  tender,  carrying  3,120  gallons  of  oil, 
being  attached  to  the  chimney-end.  Other  locomotives  of 
even  greater  size  and  higher  hauling  capacity  have  been 
designed  for  the  heaviest  classes  of  traffic  in  the  States,  in 
which  dependence  is  reposed  upon  liquid  fuel  for  steam- 
raising  purposes. 


284         THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

The  conquest  of  oil  is  indicated  equally  strikingly  in  con- 
nection with  stationary  plants.  Oil  is  a  far  more  flexible 
fuel  to  handle  for  steam-raising  purposes  than  coal :  a  sudden 
demand  can  be  met  with  tolerable  ease  therewith.  Under 
coal-stoking  conditions,  this  fluctuating  maximum  demand  is 
met  as  a  rule  by  the  installation  of  what  might  be  termed  a 
supplementary  force  of  boilers.  Normally  the  latter  are  not 
required,  but  when  the  exigencies  of  an  increased  demand 
arise,  they  are  available.  With  oil  this  surplus  plant  is  not 
necessary :  the  existing  installation  can  be  driven  somewhat 
harder  to  meet  the  temporary  increased  demand.  Under 
coal-firing  conditions  it  is  necessary  to  carry  banked  fires 
so  as  to  be  ready  for  any  emergency,  in  which  case  fuel  is 
consumed  wastefully.  With  oil  it  is  only  necessary  to  carry 
a  pilot  gas  flame.  Then,  when  the  sudden  demand  arises, 
the  oil -burner  is  started  up  instantaneously,  and  within  a 
few  minutes  the  boilers  are  carrying  a  full  head  of  steam. 

During  the  past  few  years  wonderful  advances  have  been 
made  in  regard  to  the  application  of  oil  to  various  manu- 
facturing purposes.  Furnaces  for  case-hardening  and  an- 
nealing, forging,  rolling,  cloth-singeing,  melting  metals,  are 
in  daily  use  upon  an  extensive  scale,  while  it  has  also  been 
adopted  for  the  making  of  glass.  Oil  offers  a  ready  means 
of  raising  a  fierce  heat  within  a  few  minutes,  while  the  latter 
may  be  maintained  at  a  uniform  degree  with  ease.  More- 
over, it  is  possible  to  vary  the  temperature  in  accordance 
with  requirements  much  more  readily  and  satisfactorily 
with  oil  than  with  coal,  and  this  effective  control  is  of  vital 
importance  to  many  industries. 

Another  interesting  and  more  recent  application  is  in 
connection  with  the  heating  of  buildings  upon  the  radiator 
system.  The  general  method  is  to  maintain  a  furnace  in 
the  basement  or  some  other  convenient  point,  using  coal  or 
coke  as  fuel.  Not  only  is  considerable  time  required  to 
raise  the  heat  to  the  desired  point,  but  it  is  a  somewhat 
difficult  matter  to  regulate  the  temperature.  Under  oil- 
firing,  this  end  may  be  attained  in  50  per  cent,  less  time, 
while  by  adjustment  of  the  burner  the  temperature  may  be 


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THE  COMMERCIAL  USES  OF  OIL  285 

controlled  to  a  nicety.  The  oil  fire  requires  less  attention; 
so  long  as  there  is  oil  in  the  fuel  reservoir  it  will  continue 
to  work.  It  can  be  extinguished  at  any  moment,  and  should 
it  require  to  be  relighted  there  is  an  absence  of  the  fire- 
kindling  preliminaries  incidental  to  firing  by  solid  fuel.  Of 
course,  as  in  all  other  applications  of  oil  to  power  and  heat, 
periodical  interruption  of  the  plant  for  cleaning  purposes 
is  obviated. 


CHAPTER  XXI 
THE  WORLD'S  FUTURE  OIL-SUPPLIES 

ALTHOUGH  it  is  patent  to  one  and  all  that  the  annual  con- 
sumption of  petroleum  to  meet  the  world's  complex  require- 
ments must  be  enormous,  it  is  difficult  to  grasp  how  much  is 
used  during  the  twelve  months,  because  it  attains  such  a 
stupendous  figure.  In  1911  over  420,000,000  barrels  were 
consumed,  and  the  500,000,000  barrel  mark  is  being  ap- 
proached rapidly.  In  other  words,  no  fewer  than 
21,000,000,000  gallons  of  oil  are  being  drawn  from  the  earth 
during  the  course  of  the  year.  To  this  colossal  total  the 
United  States  contribute  over  200,000,000  barrels,  or 
8,400,000,000  gallons — nearly  one-half  of  the  whole  world's 
supply.  It  is  not  surprising,  therefore,  to  learn  that  petro- 
leum ranks  as  one  of  the  foremost  products  contributing  to 
the  nation's  wealth.  The  annual  value  of  the  American 
petroleum  yield  is  considered  to  exceed  in  worth  all  the  gold, 
silver,  lead,  and  every  other  metal  product — copper  and  iron 
excepted — produced  in  an  equal  length  of  time  in  that 
country. 

How  long  will  the  earth  be  able  to  meet  such  an  enormous 
consumption  ?  Is  there  any  danger  of  these  resources  be- 
coming exhausted  ?  These  are  obvious  questions,  bearing 
in  mind  the  colossal  character  of  the  output.  So  far 
as  the  United  States  are  concerned,  little  apprehension 
need  be  entertained.  It  is  computed  that  the  proved  oil 
deposits  in  that  country  represent  an  immense  store  of 
12,000,000,000,000  barrels,  or  over  520,000,000,000,000 
gallons.  And  new  fields  are  being  discovered  and  opened 
up  every  day.  The  fact  that  300,000,000  barrels  of  petro- 
leum are  being  drawn  from  other  parts  of  the  globe  offers 
286 


THE  WORLD'S  FUTURE  OIL-SUPPLIES          287 

convincing  testimony  to  the  enormous  extent  of  this  mineral 
wealth,  and  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  commercial 
exploitation  of  these  sources  is  of  comparatively  recent  date. 
The  rapidity  with  which  these  contributing  countries  are 
being  opened  up  for  their  petroleum  wealth  is  amazing. 

Although  there  are  ample  indications  of  the  untold 
abundance  of  the  world's  supplies  of  petroleum,  the  neces- 
sity for  husbanding  these  resources  has  been  revealed. 
Even  to-day  temporary  shortages  and  gluts  are  experienced. 
The  urgency  for  displaying  greater  intelligence  in  the  ex- 
ploitation and  the  utilization  of  oil  is  being  emphasized  upon 
every  side.  In  the  past  the  abundance  of  the  product 
caused  carelessness  and  wastefulness  in  its  handling  and  con- 
sumption. But  the  stiffening  of  market  prices  has  wrought 
a  wonderful  transformation,  far  more  effective  in  its  purpose 
than  the  weighty  worded  warnings  of  experts .  The  commu 
nity,  from  the  increasing  price  of  the  commodity,  has  been 
forced  to  practise  more  economical  methods.  Similarly,  the 
producer  has  been  driven,  by  stern  experience,  to  recognize 
the  salient  fact  that,  while  a  strike  of  oil  may  represent  the 
consummation  of  ambitions,  it  is  more  likely  than  not  to 
spell  ruin,  since  a  glut  of  oil  without  a  market  is  like  a  man 
being  stranded  upon  a  desert  isle  with  bulging  pockets  of  gold. 

The  refineries,  from  the  dominating  position  they  have 
attained,  are  driving  home  the  force  of  the  conservation 
argument  with  telling  effect.  They  have  made  the  producer 
appreciate  the  fact  that  the  production  of  more  oil  than  the 
refineries  are  able  to  handle,  even  when  driven  at  tip-top 
pressure  throughout  the  round  twenty-four  hours,  is  inimical 
to  the  former's  interests.  The  retort  is  that  the  refiners 
should  alleviate  the  situation  by  extending  their  existing 
plants,  or  providing  new  ones,  for  treating  the  petroleum, 
and  provide  further  storage  facilities  in  order  to  meet  the 
fluctuating  conditions.  But  the  refinery  is  the  most  expen- 
sive item  in  the  whole  field  of  operations,  while  a  tank  farm 
represents  an  enormous  financial  investment,  the  return 
upon  which  is  somewhat  uncertain,  owing  to  the  capricious- 
ness  of  the  oil-field,  and  the  duration  of  its  productivity. 


288         THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

The  tank  farm,  from  its  very  character,  is  migratory.  It 
has  to  follow  on  the  heels  of  the  speculating  drillers  and 
boomers.  The  duration  of  its  sojourn  at  any  one  point  is 
hypothetical.  For  instance,  in  1884  the  Standard  Oil 
Company  maintained  an  immense  farm  of  tanks,  each  of 
35,000  barrels  capacity,  and  covering  a  tract  of  20  acres 
at  Olean,  in  the  heart  of  the  Pennsylvania  petroleum  dis- 
trict. To-day  one  searches  for  that  tank  farm  in  vain.  It 
was  abandoned,  the  tanks  were  demolished,  and  the  farm 
was  re-established  several  hundred  miles  distant,  in  the 
centre  of  the  Oklahoma  oil-fields,  where  175,000  barrels  per 
day  are  received,  and  tanked  pending  despatch  through  the 
pipe-lines  to  the  refineries. 

To-day  the  losses  of  oil  are  diminishing.  Fire  still  claims 
a  certain  proportion,  but  here  the  adoption  of  scientific 
appliances  and  methods  for  combating  this  fiend  have 
reduced,  and  still  are  reducing,  the  ravages  under  this 
heading  to  but  a  fraction  of  what  they  were  two  decades 
ago.  In  the  refineries  themselves  the  most  complex  and 
elaborate  arrangements  are  in  operation  to  reduce  wastage. 
Some  of  these  details,  when  regarded  individually,  appear 
too  trivial  to  receive  consideration:  the  quantity  of  oil 
which  is  saved  thereby  seems  too  insignificant  to  warrant 
the  measures  practised,  but  in  the  aggregate  a  very  appre- 
ciable saving  is  effected.  When  the  sea-going  tankers,  the 
bulk  barges,  and  the  railway  tank  waggons,  return  to  receive 
further  consignments  of  oil,  they  receive  a  preliminary 
flushing  to  remove  remaining  traces  of  the  previous  consign- 
ment, because  the  oil  to  be  shipped  on  this  occasion  is  of 
different  grade.  But  the  flush  is  not  turned  overboard. 
Instead  it  is  led  into  large  settling  tanks.  Here  the  oil  in 
time  disassociates  itself  from  the  water,  is  run  off,  and  is 
carried  through  the  distillation  process  once  more.  The 
same  applies  to  the  waste  from  the  refineries.  Every  effort 
is  taken  to  save  every  drop  of  oil  possible.  It  is  an  illu- 
minating illustration  of  the  old  saying  that  "  many  a  mickle 
makes  a  muckle,"  and  it  contributes  to  the  efficiency,  and 
incidentally  to  the  profit,  of  the  refinery. 


THE  WORLD'S  FUTURE  OIL-SUPPLIfcS         289 

In  this  observance  of  small  and  trifling  sources  of  revenue 
the  Standard  Oil  Company  excels.  Nothing  is  regarded  as 
waste :  the  items  generally  classed  as  such  are  defined  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  scientific  explanation  of  dirt — "  Matter 
in  the  wrong  place."  Accordingly,  every  effort  is  made  to 
turn  the  apparent  waste  into  its  correct  and  useful  channel. 
This  organization  creates  as  much  fuss  over  the  misuse  of 
a  few  nails  in  the  box-making  machine  as  it  does  over  the 
loss  of  a  railway  tank  waggon  loaded  with  oil.  It  prides 
itself  upon  its  ability  to  find  a  use  for  everything.  The 
little  beads  of  solder  which  drop  to  the  floor  during  the 
process  of  making  the  tin  cans  are  collected  and  thrown  into 
the  melting-pot;  the  sweepings  of  the  various  rooms  are 
sifted ;  the  wooden  boxes  in  which  the  tin  plate  is  imported 
are  sold  to  tradesmen  who  can  turn  them  to  advantage. 
The  elimination  of  waste  spells  efficiency,  and  it  was  the 
observance  of  this  immutable  law  which  was  responsible,  in 
a  great  measure,  for  the  position  which  this  concern  assumes 
in  the  oil  and  industrial  kingdom  to-day. 

Oil  is  growing  more  expensive,  and  it  will  continue  to  do 
so  under  prevailing  conditions.  The  refineries,  by  intro- 
ducing the  latest  and  most  up-to-date  time  and  labour 
saving  devices,  are  reducing  the  cost  of  resolving  the  crude 
into  its  many  marketable  parts .  But  the  cost  of  winning  the 
crude  is  rising  steadily  and  persistently.  In  the  proved 
fields  the  upper  layers  of  oil  have  been  exhausted.  The 
wells  have  to  be  taken  to  a  greater  depth;  the  speculative 
driller  has  to  toil  for  a  longer  period  than  formerly  before 
he  meets  fortune ;  and  he  draws  more  blanks  than  prizes  in 
the  gamble.  Labour  is  becoming  more  expensive.  Thus, 
it  is  costing  more  to  draw  a  gallon  of  oil  from  Mother  Earth 
to-day  than  was  the  case  a  quarter  of  a  century  ago.  In  the 
Baku  district  the  drills  are  being  driven  to  depths  which 
were  never  contemplated  before;  in  Galicia  many  of  the 
later  wells  have  had  to  be  carried  down  4,000  feet  to  reach 
the  oil,  and  as  the  depth  has  increased  experience  has  proved 
that  greater  difficulties  are  encountered.  Water  is  one 
enemy  which  is  harassing  the  deep-well  drillers  to  an  extreme 

19 


290         THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

degree;  it  is  not  readily  and  inexpensively  mastered.  Jn 
some  instances  recently  remunerative  wells  have  had  to  be 
abandoned  because  water  obtaining  and  maintaining  the 
upper  hand,  and  defying  all  efforts  to  overcome  it,  has 
poured  forth  in  greater  volume  than  the  oil.  In  fact,  in  one 
or  two  cases  the  yield  of  oil  has  been  superseded  by  a  flow 
of  water. 

The  prevailing  experience  of  the  Burmah  fields  conveys 
a  very  interesting  illustration  of  the  current  difficulties 
associated  with  oil  drilling.  This  is  one  of  the  richest  terri- 
tories in  the  world.  But  the  upper  layers  of  paying  sand  are 
becoming  exhausted,  necessitating  the  re-drilling  of  the 
wells  to  the  succeeding  layer  of  oil  sands.  This  seems  a 
simple  task,  but  it  has  revealed  one  disturbing  feature,  not 
peculiar  to  Burmah,  but  common  to  other  parts  of  the 
world.  Each  succeeding  layer  of  paying  sand  appears  to  be 
of  diminishing  yield.  Many  of  the  Burmese  wells  have  been 
carried  down  to  2,600  feet,  and  have  been  accompanied 
by  extraordinarily  fluctuating  results .  Some  re-drilled  wells 
yield  excellently ;  others  are  non-productive.  As  the  precise 
disposition  of  the  petroleum-carrying  sands  in  the  earth's 
crust  is  merely  a  matter  of  conjecture,  the  speculative 
character  of  this  probing  for  oil  may  be  realized.  At  all 
events,  re-drilling  and  deeper  drilling  cannot  be  continued 
indefinitely. 

Such  factors  cannot  but  enhance  the  cost  of  winning  oil 
from  the  earth.  One  company  alone  expended  a  round 
£50,000,  or  $250,000,  more  upon  its  field  operations  during 
1913  than  in  the  previous  year,  although  the  work  was  by 
no  means  abnormal .  This  item  is  certain  to  increase  as  the 
years  pass.  In  fact,  the  foregoing  organization  set  aside  a 
round  £100,000,  or  $500,000,  in  excess  of  that  allowed  for 
the  year  1913,  to  meet  the  expenses  under  this  heading 
during  the  ensuing  twelve  months. 

The  outlook  for  commerce,  unless  the  production  increases 
more  rapidly,  is  far  from  being  attractive.  It  is  certain 
that  oil  fuel  will  be  embraced  by  the  leading  powers  for 
naval  purposes  within  a  few  years.  It  is  estimated  that,  if 


THE  WORLD'S  FUTURE  OIL-SUPPLIES          291 

this  practice  is  adopted  upon  a  comprehensive  scale,  a  round 
200,000,000  barrels  of  oil  will  be  consumed  annually.  The 
mercantile  marine  likewise  is  contemplating  resort  to  liquid 
fuel,  and  if  current  expectations  are  fulfilled,  a  further 
200,000,000  barrels  per  year  will  thus  be  absorbed.  Thus 
the  needs  of  navies  and  commercial  vessels  will  demand 
400,000,000  barrels,  which,  at  the  moment,  represents  four- 
fifths  of  the  total  annual  output  of  the  globe.  To  meet  this 
demand,  as  well  as  the  existing  requirements  of  commerce, 
the  annual  output  will  have  to  be  increased  to  a  round 
1,000,000,000  barrels,  or  42,000,000,000  gallons  per  annum. 
Can  this  be  fulfilled  ?  Expert  testimony  is  doubtful.  It 
will  entail  doubling  the  number  of  wells  at  present  in  opera- 
tion, as  well  as  the  number  and  capacity  of  pipe-lines,  tank 
farms,  refineries,  and  transport  arrangements. 

Should  this  expected  development  materialize,  the  situa- 
tion can  be  eased  to  a  certain  extent.  Petroleum  struc- 
turally adapted  to  fulfil  the  conditions  of  fuel  oil  is  the  more 
prolific,  and  its  preparation  for  market  is  somewhat  sim- 
plified. The  naphthas  and  illuminating  oils,  known  as 
"  toppings,"  only  require  removal.  These  can  be  taken 
out  by  "  skimming,"  being  resolved  subsequently  into  their 
two  respective  series  by  distillation.  Unfortunately,  how- 
ever, the  fuel  oil  which  is  marketed  as  such  contains  appre- 
ciable fractions  of  the  two  series  removed  by  skimming, 
which,  in  other  words,  means  that  the  oil  may  be  forced  to 
release  further  quantities  of  inflammable  and  illuminating 
oils.  The  refineries,  no  doubt,  will  welcome  the  movement, 
as  their  work  will  be  rendered  simpler  and  cheaper,  but 
those  industries  depending  upon  the  explosive  and  illuminat- 
ing oils  will  suffer  somewhat. 

The  outlook  for  the  motorist  depending  upon  a  volatile 
spirit  for  his  vehicle  is  far  from  being  rosy.  During  the  past 
eight  years  the  price  of  motor  spirit  has  doubted.  In  the 
United  States  alone  the  domestic  consumption  of  petrol  or 
gasolene  rose  from  14,000,000  to  50,000,000  gallons  per 
annum  within  five  years .  The  self-propelled  vehicle,  though 
generally  regarded  as  being  responsible  for  the  increased 


292         THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

consumption  of  this  light  spirit,  is  but  one  factor  in  the 
situation.  In  the  United  States  the  foregoing  increase  within 
such  a  short  time  was  attributable  entirely  to  the  perfection 
of  the  gasolene  stove.  Rural  dwellers  hailed  this  invention 
with  enthusiasm,  because  it  placed  them  virtually  upon  a 
level  with  their  friends  dwelling  in  towns  and  cities  where 
public  gas  supply  facilities  are  available.  The  spirit  stove  is 
also  making  considerable  headway  in  China,  Japan,  and 
contiguous  countries,  as  well  as  in  India,  owing  to  the  per- 
sistent canvassing  of  the  emissaries  of  the  oil  refiners,  who 
are  ever  on  the  lookout  for  new  markets,  since  this  is  gener- 
ally regarded  as  being  one  of  the  most  valuable  sources  of 
petrol  consumption.  This  spirit,  moreover,  is  as  indis- 
pensable to  isolated  communities  as  the  staff  of  life,  because 
power,  heat,  and  lighting  are  obtained  therewith,  a  fact 
which  those  living  in  the  older  and  more  settled  corners  of 
the  world  fail  to  appreciate.  In  such  districts  industrial 
endeavour  is  brought  to  a  complete  standstill  when  the  exist- 
ing supplies  of  this  spirit  run  out. 

At  the  moment  it  is  impossible  for  the  refineries  to  meet 
the  world's  requirements  for  what  is  colloquially  known  as 
"  motor  spirit,"  and  this  is  responsible  for  its  high  price, 
which  is  about  the  same  figure  from  London  to  San  Francisco 
and  from  Nome  to  Hobart.  The  crude  is  yielding  less  and 
less  of  the  more  volatile  fractions  capable  of  inclusion  in  this 
class,  while  it  is  being  squeezed  more  and  more  in  the  process 
of  distillation  and  re-distillation  to  induce  it  to  release  the 
last  drop  of  the  lightest  naphthas. 

At  the  dawn  of  the  high-speed  internal  combustion  engine 
the  density  of  petrol  or  gasolene  ranged  between  0*636  and 
0-657.  In  a  short  while  the  specific  density  was  raised  to 
0-680,  and  for  a  time  the  market  was  so  well  supplied  with 
this  that  it  became  recognized  as  the  standard— the  collo- 
quialism, "  0-680  spirit,"  indicating  the  fuel  for  automobiles. 
Then  came  another  movement.  The  yield  of  0'68o  spirit 
becoming  less  uniform,  could  not  be  maintained,  or  not  at 
a  reasonable  price.  Distillates  of  high  and  low  gravities  were 
mixed  together  to  yield  a  product  apparently  analogous  to 


THE  WORLD'S  FUTURE  OIL-SUPPLIES         293 

that  desired.  The  device  for  vaporizing  the  spirit  naturally 
drew  off  the  lighter  constituents  first,  leaving  the  denser 
ingredients  behind.  When  the  former  was  exhausted,  the 
vaporizer  no  longer  worked  smoothly,  with  the  result  that 
innumerable  carburettor  eccentricities  were  experienced. 
When  these  occurred  in  an  equable  temperature,  it  is  not 
surprising  that  the  wrath  of  the  motorist  knew  no  bounds. 
This  mixture  of  different  distillates  continued  for  a  while, 
and,  indeed,  is  practised  by  some  companies  to  this  day. 
When  such  methods  are  practised,  the  adulteration — for 
such  it  is — baffles  detection  by  means  of  the  hydrometer, 
which  merely  gives  the  specific  gravity  of  the  liquid  and  not 
its  vaporizing  properties.  It  is  necessary  to  submit  the 
spirit  to  fractional  distillation,  which  alone  will  reveal  the 
fact  that  light  and  heavy  distillates  have  been  combined. 

So  persistently  has  the  specific  density  of  motor  fuel  been 
lowered  that  the  spirit  of  to-day  ranges  from  0715  to  0730. 
This  in  reality  is  the  benzine  or  naphtha  "  B  "  of  ten  years 
ago.  The  refiner  in  his  persistent  downward  movement 
cannot  proceed  much  farther,  because  he  is  already  verging 
upon  the  line  of  demarcation  between  the  explosive  and  the 
illuminating  oils.  This  division  from  the  vaporizing  point  of 
view  is  very  sharply  defined,  so  that,  generally  speaking, 
0730  spirit,  under  present  conditions,  is  considered  to  be 
the  limit  to  which  the  refiner  may  proceed  in  the  provision 
of  a  motor  fuel. 

The  critical  position  of  the  automobile  fuel  problem  has 
been  responsible  for  the  display  of  considerable  inventive 
ingenuity  in  the  attempt  to  discover  an  efficient  substitute 
for  petroleum  spirit,  and  fluctuating  ephemeral  successes  are 
being  achieved.  Two  or  three  years  ago  the  synthetic  or 
alternative  substitute  known  as  "  benzole  "attracted  con- 
siderable attention.  This  must  not  be  confused  with  the 
benzol  distilled  from  petroleum,  which  is  a  totally  different 
product.  The  substitute  is  derived  from  a  coal  base,  being 
one  of  the  light  oils  which  has  been  dissolved  in  coal  gas. 
Formerly  no  attempts  to  recover  this  product  were  made, 
although  its  removal  does  not  exercise  any  deleterious 


294         THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

effects  whatever  upon  the  illuminating  qualities  of  the  gas. 
The  production  of  benzole  has  developed  into  an  important 
industry,  and  has  become  one  of  the  staple  by-products  in 
the  manufacture  of  coke  for  metallurgical  purposes.  But 
in  this  particular  instance  the  production  of  the  liquid  fuel 
does  not  constitute  a  prime  factor.  It  is  merely  a  by- 
product, the  recovery  of  which  is  governed  by  the  demand 
for  the  coke;  in  other  words,  it  would  prove  unremunerative 
to  regard  the  spirit  as  a  staple  product.  Accordingly,  if  the 
demand  for  the  coke  diminishes,  the  output  of  the  spirit 
decreases  correspondingly,  with  this  additional  drawback — 
when  the  price  of  the  leading  article  falls  below  a  certain 
figure  the  recovery  of  the  benzole  fails  to  be  profitable. 

Benzole  has  not  aroused  very  enthusiastic  interest  outside 
the  British  Islands,  and  the  activity  in  this  direction  in  this 
country  has  come  to  be  regarded  as  a  passing  phase.  In 
Germany  it  is  produced  upon  a  limited  scale,  while  in  the 
United  States  it  is  absolutely  neglected.  One  disturbing 
feature  which  must  react  against  its  vogue  is  that  its  price 
has  approached  that  of  petrol,  notwithstanding  the  fact 
that  it  is  inferior  to  the  latter. 

While  Great  Britain  cannot  point  to  any  raw  petroleum 
deposits,  the  country  is  rich  in  oil  in  another  form — asso- 
ciated with  shales,  clays,  and  cannel  coals.  The  shale-oil 
industry  has  been  described  in  a  previous  chapter,  and 
to-day  constitutes  Great  Britain's  solitary  commercial  re- 
presentation in  the  oil-producing  industry.  The  clays, 
especially  the  Kimmeridge  clays,  possess  an  appreciable 
oil  content,  which  can  be  won  by  destructive  distillation. 
But  the  commercial  exploitation  is  affected  by  one  serious 
drawback — the  absence  of  fuel  deposits  within  easy  reach 
of  the  clays.  This  deficiency  is  fatal.  Much  has  been  said 
and  written  about  Great  Britain's  dormant  oil  resources  in 
this  direction,  but  the  situation  in  regard  to  the  oil-clays 
to-day  is  parallel  to  that  which  prevailed  three  or  four 
centuries  ago  in  relation  to  iron.  Sussex  is  rich  in  iron 
ores,  and  was  the  centre  of  the  iron  ore  industry.  But  no 
coal  is  found  within  easy  reach,  and  wood  had  to  be  used  as 


S    I 


St.       « 


r%     ° 
>     j. 


THE  WORLD'S  FUTURE  OIL-SUPPLIES          295 

a  fuel  in  smelting.  When  the  two  minerals  were  found  side 
by  side  in  the  North  of  England,  the  iron  industry  migrated 
from  south  to  the  north,  owing  to  the  availability  of  cheap 
fuel.  For  the  self-same  reason,  unless  coal  or  other  equally 
cheap  and  efficient  fuel  is  found  within  easy  reach  of  the 
clay  deposits,  the  extraction  of  the  oil  will  remain  merely  a 
possibility  and  not  a  commercial  certainty. 

The  possibility  of  reviving  the  British  coal-oil  industry 
has  received  considerable  stimulation  from  the  perfection 
of  the  Del  Monte  process.  In  this  instance,  as  with  the 
shales,  crude  oil  is  the  staple  product  derived  from  cannel 
coal  by  destructive  distillation,  with  sulphate  of  ammonia, 
the  valuable  fertilizer,  as  a  by-product.  The  crude  oil  is 
afterwards  subjected  to  distillation  in  a  manner  comparable 
with  the  treatment  of  the  crude  derived  from  shales,  various 
products,  among  which  motor  spirit  is  said  to  predominate, 
being  obtained  thereby. 

Great  achievements  are  promised  from  this  latest  develop- 
ment, because  Great  Britain  has  enormous  deposits  of 
cannel  coal  and  shales,  which  are  also  to  be  exploited.  Un- 
fortunately, however,  it  is  to  be  feared  that  the  high  price 
ruling  for  motor  spirit  and  the  agitation  of  motorists  for  a 
cheaper  fuel  has  been  responsible  for  attracting  undue 
attention  to  this  process.  One  has  only  to  recall  the  boom 
which  took  place  in  the  process  of  winning  oil  from  the 
Scottish  shales,  and  the  fact  that  the  seventy  firms  which 
were  once  engaged  in  this  industry  have  now  dwindled  into 
six,  to  recognize  the  difficulties  of  the  task.  The  reason  for 
the  strong  position  of  the  Scottish  shale-oil  companies  I  have 
explained  in  another  chapter;  the  new  process  has  still  to 
offer  proof  of  its  possibilities  and  profitable  operation. 

According  to  the  published  achievements  of  the  Del 
Monte  process,  about  50  gallons  of  crude  oil  are  drived  from 
i  ton  of  cannel  coal.  It  is  quite  possible  that  the  coal  is 
less  rich  in  oil  than  that  worked  by  Young  at  Bathgate, 
who  obtained  an  average  yield  of  120  gallons  per  ton;  but 
the  recovery  of  the  sulphate  of  ammonia  by-product  is  an 
additional  attraction.  Those  exploiting  the  Del  Monte 


296         THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

process  have  an  initial  advantage.  It  is  stated  that  the 
price  of  the  raw  material  is  73.  ($1.75)  per  ton  at  the  works. 
When  Young  commenced  operations,  his  coal  cost  practically 
double,  namely,  135.  6d.  ($3.25)  per  ton.  Unfortunately 
for  Young,  the  price  of  his  material  increased  until  it  at- 
tained £4  los.  ($22.50)  per  ton,  which  was  too  high  a  figure 
to  support  the  industry,  and  accordingly  oil  distillation  from 
the  coal  came  to  an  end.  It  is  not  impossible  that  what 
happened  in  the  fifties  of  the  nineteenth  will  recur  in  the 
tens  of  the  twentieth  century. 

With  the  Del  Monte  process  it  is  claimed  that,  by  dis- 
tillation and  cracking,  from  14  to  15  gallons  of  motor  spirit, 
32  to  33  pounds  of  paraffin  wax,  and  about  40  pounds  of 
pitch  may  be  derived  from  50  gallons  of  crude  oil  extracted 
from  i  ton  of  coal.  From  the  residue  sulphate  of  ammonia 
is  extracted  in  paying  quantities.  Taking  all  things  into 
consideration,  it  is  claimed  to  be  possible  to  produce  motor 
spirit  for  ijd.  (3  cents)  per  gallon.  Needless  to  say,  such 
an  achievement  will  not  only  represent  a  great  scientific 
triumph,  and  will  offer  a  means  of  setting  the  British  oil 
industry  upon  its  feet,  but  will  be  hailed  with  unalloyed 
delight  by  British  motoring  circles.  Unfortunately,  prece- 
dent is  against  the  dawning  of  such  a  millennium.  Motor 
spirit  is  in  such  keen  demand  for  twenty  or  thirty  markets, 
and  commercial  nature  is  so  frail,  it  is  only  natural  to  suppose 
that  the  producers  will  embrace  the  opportunity  to  sell 
their  commodity,  not  at  iod.,  or  20  cents,  per  gallon,  but  at 
a  price  much  the  same  as  that  of  petroleum  spirit. 

The  fact  is  generally  admitted  that  Great  Britain  should 
turn  its  lower  grades  of  coal,  those  which  at  present  have 
no  market,  to  account  in  the  distillation  of  oil.  Such  an 
industry  no  doubt  could  be  created  and  established  were 
previous  experience  not  a  serious  deterrent.  The  previous 
attempts  to  distil  oil  from  coal  were  by  no  means  successful. 
The  quality  of  the  products  did  not  compare  favourably 
with  those  derived  from  petroleum,  and  accordingly  the 
industry  fell  upon  evil  days,  languished  for  a  time,  and 
finally  died  out.  The  evolution  of  a  simple  and  profitable 


THE  WORLD'S  FUTURE  OIL-SUPPLIES         297 

process  for  distilling  oil  from  coal  remains  an  unsolved 
problem  of  science.  Its  perfection  will  enable  those  coun- 
tries possessing  vast  deposits  of  low-grade  coal ,  but  without 
petroleum  resources,  to  throw  off  the  shackles  of  dependence 
upon  nations  which  have  been  more  favourably  blessed  by 
Nature  in  this  respect. 

In  the  attempt  to  alleviate  the  existing  irksome  situation 
prevailing  in  Great  Britain,  numerous  other  inventions  have 
been  duly  announced.  Among  these  may  be  mentioned  the 
derivation  of  motor  spirit  from  heavy  oils  by  "  cracking  " 
and  catalytic  action.  Heavy  oils  are  utilized  because  they 
may  be  purchased  cheaply.  Cracking  and  catalysis,  how- 
ever, are  by  no  means  new.  They  are  practised  in  every 
up-to-date  petroleum  refinery,  where  effort  is  being  con- 
centrated upon  the  maximum  yield  of  the  explosive  and 
illuminating  fractions,  especially  with  oils  having  a  paraffin 
base.  The  present  crisis  has  been  responsible  for  the  publi- 
cation of  several  processes  relating  to  what  may  be  described 
as  the  production  of  synthetic  oil  products,  and  for  the 
derivation  of  oils  from  a  wide  variety  of  substances.  Need- 
less to  say,  these  sensational  and  revolutionary  processes 
are  intended  for  consumption  by,  and  to  extract  money 
from,  the  gullible.  To  win  oil  from  any  substance  oil  must 
be  present,  and  in  sufficient  quantities  to  render  its  ex- 
traction financially  profitable,  otherwise  the  possibilities 
of  success  are  comparable  with  those  attending  the  ex- 
traction of  gold  from  sea-water. 

The  solution  to  the  fuel  issue  in  relation  to  the  traction 
problem  must  come  from  outside  the  petroleum  world. 
Oil  refiners  are  unanimous  in  the  opinion  that  alcohol  will 
constitute  the  motor  fuel  of  the  future.  It  is  more  abundant 
and  can  be  extracted  more  easily  and  cheaply  from  the  raw 
materials  than  its  equivalent  can  be  derived  from  petro- 
leum. Moreover,  there  is  the  ability  to  maintain  an  abun- 
dance of  the  essential  raw  material,  because  the  vegetable 
world  is  prolific  in  its  yield  of  alcohol.  The  one  objection 
to  alcohol  is  its  lower  working  efficiency.  One  gallon  of 
alcohol  will  do  no  more  useful  work  than  about  half  a  gallon 


298         THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

of  petroleum  spirit.  On  the  other  hand,  taking  into  con- 
sideration the  cheap  price  at  which  alcohol  can  be  distilled, 
this  is  not  a  disadvantage.  Unfortunately,  throttling  legis- 
lative action  has  rendered  alcohol  production  impracticable. 
Were  it  freed  from  these  trammellings,  it  would  be  possible 
to  create  a  new  and  large  industry,  which  within  a  very 
short  time  would  be  flourishing  and  prosperous.  It  would 
solve  the  back-to-the-land  problem  completely,  because  the 
culture  of  potatoes,  beet,  and  other  vegetable  produce 
yielding  a  high  percentage  of  alcohol,  would  be  extremely 
remunerative.  Within  less  than  a  single  decade  this  country 
would  be  able  to  produce  every  gallon  of  motor  fuel  which 
it  demands.  Undoubtedly  the  alcohol  distilling  industry 
will  undergo  development  the  moment  the  chemist  evolves 
a  cheap  and  completely  effective  denaturizing  agent,  so  that 
human  consumption  of  the  spirit  may  be  rendered  impossible. 
Seeing  that  Great  Britain  does  not  yield  a  drop  of  petro- 
leum, it  is  obvious  that  we  must  depend  upon  our  own 
exertions,  and  work  out  our  own  salvation  in  matters  per- 
taining to  the  motor  spirit  problem.  The  foremost  petro- 
leum refining  companies  are  generally  assailed  for  artificially 
inflating  the  price  of  this  commodity.  The  situation  can  be 
eased  only  by  introducing  a  powerful  competitor,  such  as 
alcohol.  The  petroleum  refining  companies  are  not  troubled 
one  whit  by  the  various  processes  which  are  constantly 
being  brought  before  the  public  for  winning  motor  spirit 
from  petroleum  and  other  products.  Each  has  been,  and 
still  is  being,  tested,  and  the  measure  of  the  competition 
likely  to  ensue  has  been  fully  taken.  Whatever  contribu- 
tions such  processes  may  make  to  the  motor  fuel  question, 
they  cannot  affect  the  ultimate  issue,  because  of  the  very 
wide  difference  between  supply  and  demand.  On  the  other 
hand,  as  alcohol  can  be  produced  so  cheaply— at  about  one- 
eighth  of  the  cost  of  petroleum  spirit— and  can  be  manu- 
factured in  unlimited  quantities,  it  would  become  a  serious 
competitor.  In  one  stroke  a  remunerative  market  in  the 
petroleum  world  would  be  lost  beyond  recovery,  because 
the  petroleum  refiner  could  never  aspire  to  produce  and  sell 


THE  WORLD'S  FUTURE  OIL-SUPPLIES          299 

petroleum  spirit  at  a  figure  below,  or  even  comparable  with, 
the  price  of  alcohol. 

The  wail  is  frequently  raised  that  the  petroleum  industry 
is  controlled  by  a  few  organizations,  and  that  they  wield 
autocratic  sway.  Certainly  the  most  prominent  firms  are 
huge  concerns,  possessed  of  great  capital  resources,  and 
earning  huge  profits.  The  Standard  Oil  Company  of  America 
is  unique;  its  fabric  is  of  colossal  proportions.  The  capital 
of  the  company  is  $100,000,000,  or  £20,000,000.  But  this 
does  not  convey  an  adequate  impression  of  its  wealth.  This 
is  revealed  by  its  extensive  operations  and  stupendous 
facilities  for  purchasing,  storing,  refining,  and  marketing 
petroleum  and  its  products.  The  value  of  its  plant  and 
equipment  of  all  descriptions  is  estimated  at  $700,000,000, 
or  £140,000,000,  seven  times  its  capital.  In  normal  times 
it  gives  employment  to  80,000  men,  and  distributes  over 
$150,000,  or  £30,000,  among  this  big  army  every  day  in  the 
form  of  wages,  while  from  the  sale  of  its  products  it  derives 
a  daily  income  exceeding  $250,000,  or  £50,000.  The 
majority  of  the  employees  are  shareholders  in  the  concern, 
this  policy  having  been  fostered,  while  it  maintains  its  own 
pension  scheme,  which  is  conducted  upon  a  liberal  scale. 
It  owns  forests  in  different  parts  of  the  country,  whence  it 
derives  the  timber  required  for  the  manufacture  of  barrels 
and  boxes,  which  it  makes  in  its  own  workshops,  with 
machinery  designed  by  its  own  men,  and  made  in  its  own 
machine  shops.  It  makes  its  own  glue;  builds  its  own 
railway  tank  waggons;  its  road  waggons;  pumps  for  driving 
the  oil  through  the  pipe-lines,  lamps,  wicks — in  short,  a 
thousand  and  one  articles  which  are  tributary  to  the  oil 
trade.  At  the  same  time  it  is  a  large  buyer  of  these  com- 
modities in  the  open  market,  because  even  its  extensive 
facilities  are  insufficient  to  comply  with  the  fluctuating  and 
expanding  requirements  of  trade. 

This  powerful  organization  was  created  to  consolidate 
interests,  to  concentrate  manufacturing  forces,  to  reduce 
manufacturing  expenses,  to  eliminate  waste,  to  maintain  the 
balance  between  production  of  the  crude  and  refining,  to 


300         THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 

cope  with  oil-booms  and  rushes  with  their  concomitant  evils 
and  reckless  losses  of  valuable  material,  and  to  prevent 
suicidal  competition.  In  a  word,  it  set  the  oil  industry  upon 
a  solid  foundation.  The  organization,  owing  to  its  magni- 
tude and  wealth,  has  been  bitterly  assailed,  but  obloquy  is 
the  inevitable  penalty  for  enterprise  and  success.  The  fact 
is  realized  to-day,  however,  that  it  is  a  stable  and  economic 
national  force,  which  has  contributed  in  no  small  degree 
to  the  wealth  of  the  country  to  which  it  belongs.  The 
Standard  no  more  dominates  the  oil  industry  of  the  United 
States  than  the  British  interests  govern  that  of  Russia. 
It  is  an  insignificant  oil  producer,  because  it  produces  a 
bare  15  per  cent,  of  the  petroleum  raised  in  the  States.  Its 
producing  activities  are  confined,  for  the  most  part,  to 
pioneering  in  districts  where  the  conditions  and  problems 
are  beyond  the  resources  of  the  speculative  individual. 
The  remaining  85  per  cent,  of  the  oil  raised  from  the  earth 
is  contributed  by  independent  companies,  syndicates,  and 
speculators.  The  company  is  the  largest  purchaser  of  the 
crude,  and  this  is  entirely  due  to  the  fact  that  it  is  able  to 
take  care  of  the  raw  material,  and  because  the  producer  is 
assured  of  a  fair  and  steady  market,  as  related  in  a  previous 
chapter. 

Owing  to  the  success  of  the  premier  American  organiza- 
tion, similar  concerns  are  being  built  up  slowly  in  other 
countries.  Each  is  essentially  a  "  miniature  Standard," 
because  the  methods  practised  by  the  American  concern, 
which  experience  has  proved  to  be  successful,  are  being 
copied.  The  advantages  of  concentration  and  decentraliza- 
tion have  been  established;  they  offer  the  only  means  of 
handling  successfully  such  a  capricious  undertaking  as  the 
winning  and  selling  of  oil. 

Wealth  is  imperative  in  oildom.  Money  often  has  to  be 
poured  out  in  an  apparently  reckless  manner.  The  failures 
exceed  the  successes  in  number.  Many  of  the  blanks  which 
are  drawn  after  the  expenditure  of  large  sums  of  money 
would  wreck  a  small  concern .  The  large  organization  is  able 
to  face  reverses  without  perturbing  its  shareholders  in  the 


THE  WORLD'S  FUTURE  OIL-SUPPLIES         301 

slightest.  In  the  transportation  of  the  crude,  the  refining, 
and  the  shipment  of  the  products,  substantial  financial 
strength  is  imperative.  To-day  a  corner  in  oil  is  impossible, 
owing  to  the  conflicting  interests  engaged  in  the  industry. 
For  many  years  the  United  States  and  Russia  were  virtually 
the  only  oil-producing  countries,  but  they  hold  this  dis- 
tinction no  longer.  In  Mexico  the  development  of  the  oil 
resources  has  undergone  sensational  and  rapid  uplifting; 
in  fact,  the  progress  of  development  eclipses  that  of  the 
United  States.  The  British  interests  associated  with  the 
expansion  of  Mexico's  oil  commerce  have  played  a  prominent 
part  in  increasing  the  annual  output  from  that  country 
from  1,000,000  barrels  to  23,000,000  barrels,  and  that  within 
six  years.  Similarly  rapid  expansion  is  taking  place  in 
other  countries,  notably  Roumania,  while  newer  territories, 
unknown  to-day,  will  become  powerful  forces  in  the  oil 
world  within  two  or  three  years,  owing  to  the  remarkable 
enterprise  and  strenuous  endeavour  associated  with  their 
development. 

What  is  the  future  of  oil  ?  It  is  impossible  to  prophesy . 
Notwithstanding  the  conquests  which  it  has  achieved  up 
to  the  present,  they  are  insignificant  in  comparison  with  its 
coming  triumphs.  It  will  exert  as  far-reaching  an  influence 
upon  the  commercial  prominence  of  a  country  as  it  will 
upon  its  concrete  existence.  Coal  played  a  vital  part  in  the 
welfare  and  prosperity  of  the  countries  of  the  world  during 
the  nineteenth  century.  Oil  will  seal  the  fate  of  nations 
during  the  twentieth  century. 


INDEX 


Abbott  and  Harley,  tanks  of,  105 

Acapulco,  282 

Acetylene,  140,  146,  253 

Africa,  oil  resources,  6,  25 

Africa,  desert  of,  the  tank  system 

in,  257,  268 
Africa,  South,  oil  supply,  6;  shale 

deposits,  192 
"  Agitators,"  137 
Agngentum,  ancient  use  of  oil,  i 
Air,  compressed,  method  of  drawing 

oil  by,  70 

Alaska,  oil  boom  in,  56 
Alberta,  natural  gas  supply,   196; 

cost  of  coal  in,  201 
Alcohol,  as  motor  fuel,  297-98 
Alfreton  coalmine,  n 
Allegheny  River,  49 
Alps,  Swiss,  absence  of  oil  deposit, 

10 
America,  Central,  oil  resources  of, 

38,  84,  114,  286-87 
America,  North:  natural  gas  supply 
of,  196-201;  cod  fisheries,  237, 
238;  blackfish  catching,  249; 
menhaden  fishing,  252-53;  forest 
fires  in,  281 

America,  South:  oil  resources,  6, 
25;  asphalt  from,  153;  shark 
fishery,  240;  seal  fishery,  247; 
liquid  fuel  for  railways  of,  280- 
81 

Ammonia:    anhydrous,    189;    sul- 
phate of,  from  shale  distillation, 
181-92,  295-96 
Andes,  oil  supply,  10 
Angostura  bitters,  26 
Aniline  dyes,  143 

Animal  oils,  mixed  with  petrol,  149 

Animal    traction:    to    convey  raw 

material,  revolt  of  the  teamsters, 

103-6;   effect  of  oil  fuel  on,  use 

„  of-  273 

Anticlines,"  9 

Appalachian  oil-fields,  5,  114 
Arabia,  oil  resources,  32 


I    Arachide  oil,  233-34 

|    Arcy,  Mr.  D',  work  of,  28-31 

j    Artesian  wells,  method  of  boring 

for,  38-39 

Artois,  boring  for  water  in,  38-39 
Asia,  oil  supply,  7 
Asphalt :  the  pitch  lake  of  Trinidad , 
149-59;  as  road-making  material, 
159-62 

"  Asphaltic  concrete,"  158,  161 
Asphaltic  oils,  9,  124,  149 
Auer,  Baron  von,  invention  of,  140 
Australia:  oil  supply,  7;  shale  de- 
posits, 192;  forest  fires,  281 
Autray,  Dr.,  work  of,  on  the  Mexi- 
can oil-field,  26 

Bailing,  method  in  the  Caucasus, 
70,  90 

Baker  oil-field,  113 

Baku :  ancient  oil  fires  of,  i ;  forms 
in  which  oil  is  found  in,  3;  oil 
supply  of,  25,  38;  a  deluge  of  oil- 
drops,  76;  storage  of  oil,  no-n; 
gusher  fires  of,  165,  174;  depth 
of  drills,  289 

Band,  the  endless,  method  of  draw- 
ing oil  by,  70-71 

Barges,  bulk,  transport  by,  259, 
262-64 

Barrel-car,  the,  258-59,  266 

Bassano,  197 

Bathgate,  Scotland,  179,  295 

Batoum,  port  of ,  no,  in 

Baume  hydrometer,  use,  135 

Bayonne  refineries,  129;  fires  at, 
165 

Beaumont  field  in  Texas,  76-77, 
no;  losses  on  the,  88 

Belgium,  butter-making  laws  of,  210 

Bell,  Dr.  Rpbt.,  investigations,  180 

Benzine,  distillation  of,  133,  144; 
density,  293 

"  Benzole,"  293-96 

Benzoline,  distillation  of,  133,  191 

Bethlehem,  Pa.,  15 


302 


INDEX 


303 


Bibi-Eibat  field,   spouters  of  the, 

75-76,  88 
Biscuit  trade,  use  of  oleo,  214-16, 

221-22 

Bitumen  of  pitch  lake,  150,  155-58; 
use  in  road-building,  153 

Blackfish  oil,  248-49 

"  Blended  "  fuel,  205 

Board  of  Trade,  British,  certificates 
granted  by,  277 

Boca,  La,  tank-steamers  at,  117 

"  Bocas  (Dos),"  the,  25,  55,  84,  85, 
89,  174-78 

Bolivia,  oil  prospecting  in,  23-24 

Bonanza  Flats,  14 

Boric  preservative,  229 

Boring  for  oil,  the  well-driller  and 

:-   his  tools,  35-47,  49-61,  71-75,  289- 

"90 

Borneo,  oil  resources  of,  7,  25 

Boryslaw  oil-field,  70 

Bow  Island,  197 

British  Isles:  oil  supply  of,  5,  10; 
supply  of  natural  gas,  195-96; 
disposal  of  surplus  fish  in,  251 

Broxburn,  shale  of,  180-82 

Bryson,  Mr.  James,  retort  invented 
by,  182 

Buisson,  Du,  distillation  from  shale, 
179-80;  discovery,  192 

Bunkering  ports,  supply  of  oil 
fuel,  277 

Bunsen  burner,  the,  164 

Burmah:  forms  in  which  oil  is 
found,  3;  oil  resources  of,  7,  8, 
25,  38;  depth  of  wells,  71;  diffi- 
culties of  drilling,  289-90 

Burmese  method  of  "  bailing  "  oil, 
2 ;  pipe-line,  the,  108 

Burning-point  of  paraffin,  146 

Butter,  synthetic,  192,  209,  223-35; 
from  fish  oil,  254-55 

Butter-fat,  extraction  of,  230-31 

Butterine,  209-11,  216 

Caddo  oil-field,  fire  in  the,  169-74; 
amount  of  natural  gas  supply, 
196-97 

Calgary,  oil  supply,  55,  198 

California:  oil  resources,  5,  8-n, 
78,  82,  method  of  boring,  40,  65, 
72;  big  strikes,  58;  storage 
facilities,  95-98;  density  of  the 
oil  of,  112-13,  119;  pipe-line 
system  of,  113-15;  refineries  of, 
130-31;, asphalt  of,  153;  bitumen 
from,  159;  use  of  road  oil,  160; 
natural  gas  supply,  196;  the  oil 
shark  of,  240 

Canada:    oil    resources,    5-6,    55; 


method  of  drilling,  40;  shale  de- 
posits, 192;  natural  gas  supply, 
197-201 ;  use  of  the  motor  in,  279 

Canadian  oil,  125-31 

Candle-making,  constituents  used 
in,  238 

Caney,  206 

Cannelor  boghead  coal,  illuminating 
oil  from,  179,  295,  296 

Carbons,  149 

Carolina,  North,  249 

Cars,  tank,  258-59 

Caspian  fields,  attempts  to  control 
gushers,  82 

Caspian  Sea,  oil  strata  below,  6,  n, 
24-25 ;  seal  oil  of  the,  245 

Catalysis,  297 

Caucasian  oil-fields:  the  supply,  10, 
24-25,  271;  method  of  boring, 
65-66;  method  of  bailing  in,  70, 
90;  depth  of  wells,  71;  gushers, 
75,  84,  89;  pipe-line  system  in 
the,  no-ii 

"  Certificate."     See  "  Credit  note  " 

Ceylon,  coconut  of,  218 

Charleston  Harbour,  242 

Chewing-gum,  147,  192 

Chicago,  sale  of  Lima  oil  in,  127; 
natural  gas  supply,  196;  markets 
of,  212-13 

Chinese  Empire:  oil  supply  of,  7; 
boring  for  water  in,  38-39 ;  use  of 
shark  fins,  240 ;  the  tank  system 
in,  257,  267-68;  preference  for 
"  packed  "  oil,  271-72;  use  of  the 
spirit-stove,  292 

Church  Run,  14 

Clays,  oils  from,  294-95 

Cleveland  refineries,  129 
Coal:  methods  of  mining,  n;  coal- 
gas  industry,  151;  oils  from,  179; 
competition  with  oil  as  a  steam- 
raising   power,    273-84;    amount 
used   by   the   Mauretania,    275; 
disadvantages  of  coaling  at  sea, 
278 ;  motor  spirit  from,  293-96 
Coalinga  field,  78 
Cochin  China,  coconut  of,  218 
Cocoa-bean,  the,  216-17 
Cocoa-butter,  216 
Coconut-cake,  220 
Coconut  oil:  the  oleo,  213-18;  pro- 
cess of  refining,  218-19;  the  grind- 
ing plant,  219-20;  elimination  of 
the  aroma,  220-21 ;  grades  of,  221 
Coconut-palm :  boom  of  the,  216-18 ; 
estates  acquired   by  Otto  Mon- 
sted,  226 

Cod-liver  oil,  price  of,  236-37;  pro- 
cess of  cooking,  237-38 


THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 


Colon,  116-17 

Colza,  146 

Commercial  uses  of  oil,  273-85 

Compensation  for  damages  caused 

by  spouters,  88-89 
Compound  oils,  149 
Concrete  reservoirs,  97-98 
Condensing  apparatus,  123-24 
Confectionery   trade,    use   of   oleo, 

214,  215-16,  221,  222 
"  Copra,"   218-20;    uncertainty   of 

supply,  226 
Cow  Run,  14 
Cowdray,  Lord,  British  interests 

controlled   by,   6,  27-28,  55,  84, 

95,  108, 114,  174,  263,  269-71,  282 
Cracking,  process  of,  139,  297 
Credit   notes,    method    of   dealing 

through,  100 
Creosote,  use,  150-51 
Crude    oil:    care    of    the,    91-101; 

price  of,  92,  115;  the  two  classes, 

124;  distillation  into  three  groups, 

!33 

Cugas,  oil-springs  of,  26 
Cut  tanks,  135,  136,  137 
Cylinder  stock  oil,  147 
Cymogene,  134,  135 

Damage  caused  by  spouters,  com- 
pensation for,  88-89 
Deans,  187 

Del  Monte  process,  the,  of  oil  dis- 
tilling, 295-96 

"  Demak  (the  eternal  fire  of),"  4 
Denmark,  butter-making  in,  210-12, 

224-25 

Distillation:  commodities  resolved 
from  the  crude  by,  122;  destruc- 
tive and  fractional,  132-39 
Dog-fish,  liver  of  the,  240 
"  Drag  "  fire  extinguisher,  176-77 
Drake,  Colonel  E.  L.,  discovery  of, 

12-16;  method  of  boring,  39,  49 
Drake  Museum,  Titusville,  15 
Driller:  methods  of  the,  35-47,  49- 
61 , 74-75 ;  difficulties  encountered 
by,  71-73,  289-90;  relations  with 
the  farmer,  100 

"  Drive-pipe,"  use  of  the,  44-45 
Dug-outs,  Indian,  use  of,  22 
Dunmore,  197 
Dust  destructors,  161-62 

Eagle  Oil  Transport  Company,  263- 
64,  269-71 

Earth's  crust,  construction,  9-10 

Edmonton,  197 

Egypt,  oil  resources,  6-7,  32 ;  trans- 
port in,  257 


Electricity,   140;  generated  by  use 

of  natural  gas,  202 
Engines,  oil,  274 
Epure,  asphalt,  156,  157,  158 
Erie,  Lake,  oil  deposits  of,  126 

Farmers  and  drillers,  method  of 
dealing,  50-52,  100 

Farming,  use  of  the  motor  in,  279 

"  Field  of  oil,"  the,  Persia,  29-31 

Fire:  dangers  from,  85-86;  destruc- 
tion of  the  Lucas  spouter,  89; 
oil  fires  and  their  extinction,  163- 
78;  tank  fires,  164-65,  168-69; 
gusher  fires,  165-66;  Texan  fires, 
166-67;  use  of  steam  to  extin- 
guish, 167-68;  on  a  tank  farm, 
168-69;  Caddo  fields,  169-74;  *hc 
Dos  Bocas,  175-78;  danger  from 
natural  gas,  194,  205-6;  burning 
of  the  Maggie  Vanderpool  gas 
well,  206-7;  fires  on  whaling 
vessels,  243;  forest  fires  from 
coal  firing,  281;  oil  losses  caused 
by,  288 

Fish,  oils  from,  236-55 

Fish-jaw  oil,  248-50;  refining  of, 
250-51 

Fish-oil  butter,  254-55 

"  Fishing  "  tools,  62-63 

Flash-point  of  paraffin,  145-46 

Florida  coast,  storms,  260 

Flux,  157 

Fluxphalte,  150 

France :  oil  sources  of,  6 ;  distillation 
of  petroleum  in,  180;  shale  de- 
posits, 192;  use  of  the  road 
tanker  in,  267 

Frasch,  Dr.  Herman,  investiga- 
tions of,  127-31 

Fraser,  Mr.  William,  182 

Fredonia,  natural  gas  obtained,  194 

Freight  charges,  100 

French  Creek,  49 

Fruits,  crystallized,  192 

Fuel,  liquid:  advance  in  use  of, 
273-76;  ships  using  oil  fuel,  277; 
necessity  to  war  vessels,  277-78; 
advantages  over  coal  as  a  steam- 
raising  power,  279-80;  railways 
using,  280-83 

Funkville,  14 

Gainsborough  tractors,  use  in  Per- 
sia, 31 

Galicia:  oil  supply,  6,  38;  method 
of  drawing  oil  in,  70-71 ;  depth 
of  drills,  289 

Gas,  natural:  at  Newton  well,  15; 
pockets  of,  use  of,  64-65;  escape 


INDEX 


305 


by  oxidation,  120-21;  waste, 
used  for  steam -raising,  124;  un- 
certainty of  supply,  194-95;  sup- 
plies and  consumption  in  United 
States,  196-97;  supply  of  North 
America,  197-99;  municipal  con- 
trol of  gas  rights,  199-201;  in- 
dustrial uses,  201-2;  discovery 
of  John  Lathrop  Gray,  202-5; 
danger  from  fire,  205-7 

Gas-burner,  the  incandescent,  140, 
HO.  253 

Gas-tar,  150 

Gasolene:  deposited  from  natural 
gas,  202, 203-5;  density  of,  292,293 

Gasolene  stove,  the,  292 

Gauger,  work  of  the,  99-100 

Germany:  oil  supply  of,  6;  methods 
of  refining  in,  131;  margarine- 
making  in,  210;  use  of  the  road 
tanker,  267;  production  of  ben- 
zole, 294 

"  Go-devil,"  use  of  the,  67,  68 

Godley,  near  Hyde,  225 

Graham,  Professor,  n 

Grand  Junction  Canal,  226 

Gray,  John  Lathrop,  discovery  of, 
202-5 

"  Greasy  men,"  168,  169-70 

Great  Britain:  asphalt  purchased 
by.  J57.  I59.'  method  of  road- 
making  with  asphalt,  158;  oils 
from  coal,  179;  butter-making 
laws  of,  210;  the  margarine  in- 
dustry in,  224,  225,  227;  the 
tank-car  in,  258-59,  267;  coal 
advantage  over  oil  in,  280;  oil 
resources,  294;  production  of 
"  benzole,"  294 

Great  Eastern  Railway,  use  of  oil, 
280 

Great  Lakes,  oil-tankers  of  the,  262, 
264 

Great  Western  Railway,  226 

Greenland  whaling  industry,  242 

Greenville,  N.Y.,  15 

"  Gushers,"  69,  74-75;  attempts  to 
control  output,  80-84,  86-87;  tne 
destruction  caused  by,  88-89; 
life  of  a  gusher,  89-90  ;  wastage 
of  oil  from,  108-9  ;  gusher  fires, 
165-66 

Hake  oil,  251 

Hamburg-American  line,  adoption 

of  oil,  277 

Hand,  drawing  oil  by,  38 
Hatteras,  Cape,  249 
Haussmann,  152 
Heat,  use  in  distillation,  122 


Heathfield,  natural  gas  found  at, 

195-96 

Herring-oil,  251 
"  Higgins  "  reservoir,  the,  77 
Hogg  Swayne  Field  fire,  167 
Holden,  Mr.,  device  of,  280 
Humble,  78 

Hydrogen,  production  of,  138 
"  Hydrogena ting  process,"  the,  253- 

54 

Illuminating     oils:     oils     included 

under    term,    133-39;    produced 

from  sh,ale,  191 
Incandescent  gas-mantle,  the,  140, 

146,  253 

Incendiarism,  danger  of,  85,  86 
India,  the  tank  system  in,  268;  use 

of  the  spirit  stove,  292 
Indiana,  oil  from,  124,  129 
Indians,   incendiarism   by,   feared, 

85-86 
Indies,  Dutch  East,  oil  supply  of, 

7,  8 ;  storage  facilities,  95 
Inflammable     oils,     oils    included 

under  term,  133-42 
Interoceanic   Railway,   use  of  oil, 

282 
Iron  smelting,  use  of  natural  gas 

in,    195;    the   English  industry, 

294-95 

Isherwood  system  of  building  tan- 
kers, 263 

Isthmianor  Tehuantepec  railway,  27 

Italy,  oil  supply,  6 

Japan:  use  of  sulphate  of  ammonia, 
192;  cod  fisheries  of,  237,  239; 
fish-oils  of,  254;  use  of  the  spirit- 
stove,  292 

Japanese  liners,  adoption  of  oil,  277 
Java:  mud  volcanoes  of,  3-4;  oil- 
resources,  25-26;  density  of  the 
oil,  119 

Jellies,  manufacture,  192 
John  Benninghoff  Farm,  105 
Jones,  Mr.  James,  retort  invented 
by,  182 

Kansas:  oil  resources,  5,  8,  206;  the 
oil  boom,  56,  58,  94-95;  tank 
farms,  95 ;  natural  gas  supply,  196 

Kermode,  Mr.  J.  J.,  on  use  of  oil 
fuel,  274-75 

Kern  River  field,  95-97;  difficulty  of 
piping,  112;  density  of  the  oil,  119 

Kerosene,  distillation  of,  134 

Kier,  Samuel,  burner  devised  by,  14 

Kimmeridge  clays,  294 

Kutain,  in 

2O 


306          THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 


Labrador:  cod  fishing,  237;  whaling 

industry,  242 

Lactic  germs,  cultivation  of,  231-35 
Lake    View    gusher    field,    78-80; 

attempt  to  control,  82-84 
Leather-currying,  oil  for,  236,  238 
Leinweber,  Herr,  of  Vienna,  method 

of  drawing  oil,  70-71 
Lima  oil,  124,  126-31 
Locomotives,  giant,  oil  fuel  for,  283 
Loder  and  Nucoline,  Messrs.,  218 
Loder  and  Petty,  Messrs.,  213 
Loder,    Mr.    Francis   H.,    and    his 

brother,  216 
Loder,  Mr.  Francis  Wm.,  discovery 

of,  213-15 

Lofoten  Islands,  cod  of,  237 
London  Oil  Congress  of  1912,  274- 

"  Lone  Star  State,"  oil  resources,  76 
Louisiana:  oil  drilling  in,  45;  oil 
fires    in,    167-74;    natural    gas- 
supply  of,  196 

Lubricating  oils:  oils  included  under 
term,  134,  141-42,  191;  use  of, 
147 

Lucas,  Captain  A.  F.,  76 
Lucas  Well  of  Texas,  78,  89,  no 

McDonald  field,  the,  109 

"Maggie    Vanderpool"     gas- well, 

burning  of  the,  206-7 
Mai- Amir,  29 
Malabar,  coconut  of,  218 
Mallet  articulated  compounds,  the, 

283 

Manchester,   tank    system    estab- 
lished at,  270-71 
Mannheim,  131 
Manure,  fish,  251-52 
Margarine-making,209, 211 ;  amount 

of  consumption,  223;  Monsted's 

margarine,  225-35 
Maricopa,  80 
Marsh  gas,  138,  199 
Maryampolski  oil-field,  70 
"Mashut,"  271,  280 
Mauritania,  engines  of  the,  275-76 
Medicine  Hat,  natural  gas  supply, 

197,  200-1 

Menhaden  oil,  252-53 
Mercury,  fulminate  of,  use,  66 
Mesopotamia,  oil  supply,  7,  31 
Methane  gas,  138,  199 
Mexican     Eagle     Company.      See 

Eagle  Oil  Transport  Company 
Mexico:  the  Mexican  oil-field,  6,  8, 

26-28,  55,  178;  oil-drilling  in,  45; 

method  of  drawing  oil,  69 ;  gusher 

territory  of,  84,  89 ;  storage  facili- 


ties, 95,  98,  263;  density  of  the 
oil,  108,  112,  119;  pipe-line  sys- 
tem, 114;  petroleum  residue, 
149-50;  bitumen  from,  159;  oil 
fires,  174;  development  of  the 
British  interests,  269-71,  301; 
liquid  fuel  on  railways  of,  280-82 

Mexico,  Gulf  of,  77,  196,  282 

Mexphalte,  150 

Midway  Maricopa  field,  78 

Mikhailovs,  station  of,  in 

Milk:  used  in  nut  butter,  228-29; 
treatment  of,  230-35 

Miller's  Farm,  104 

Minatitlan,  269 

Monsted,  Otto,  making  of  mar- 
garine, 224-35 

Montgomery,  206 

Motor-bus,  the,  278-79^; 

Motor-ship,  the,  274 

Motor-spirit:  specific  gravity  of, 
141,  144,  191;  from  natural  gas, 
discovery  of  Gray,  202-5;  in- 
crease in  cost  of,  291-92 

Motor  traffic,  influence  on  road- 
making,  153 

Mouries,  MegS,  discovery  of,  209-11, 
224 

"  Mud-flush,"  43 

"  Mud  volcanoes,"  the,  3-4,  119 

Municipal  control  of  gas  rights, 
199-201 

Napoleon  III.,  209 

Naphtha:  group  of  oil,  133-41;  the 
three  classes,  144-45;  blending 
of  low  grade,  205;  density  of, 

293 

Natal,  shale  deposits,  6,  192 
National  Transit  Company,  115 
New  Bedford,  248,  250 
New  Brunswick,  shale  deposits,  192 
New  Orleans,  160 
New  York,  117 

New  York  State,  natural  gas  ob- 
tained, 194 
New  Zealand:   mud  volcanoes  of, 

3-4;  oil  supply,  7;  geysers,  178 
Newcomen  beam-engine,  42 
Newfoundland,  cod  of,  237 
Newton  well,  the,  15 
Niagara,  oil  fuel  burned  by  the,  277 
Nitro-glycerine :  use  in  "  shooting" 

the    well,    65-69;    employed    to 

choke  a  fire,  177* 
Nobel  Company,  the,  24-25,  261-62, 

271 

Nome,  natural  gas,  196 
Norway:   cod  fisheries,  237-40;  fish 

oils  of,  254 


INDEX 


307 


Nut-butter:  amount  of  production, 
224-27;  ingredients,  228-29; 
treating  the  milk,  230-35 

Nye,  Mr.  Wm.  F.,  discovery  of, 
248-49 

"  Offset "  wells,  59 

Ohio:  oil  deposits,  124, 126;  sulphur 
oil  of,  129 

"  Oil ":  vagueness  of  the  term,  2-3; 
forms  in  which  found,  and  dis- 
tribution, 3;  oil-surveyor,  the 
British  and  American  compared, 
18-19;  methods,  19-21;  troubles 
of  prospecting,  21-25;  charac- 
teristics of  the  British  prospector, 
25;  price  of  oil,  101;  animal  and 
compound  oils,  149 

Oil-boomers,  49-60 

Oil-cake,  220 

Oil-coke,  139,  188  - 

Oil  Creek,  12-14,  49 

Oil  Creek  Railroad,  105 

"  Oil-divining,"  32-34 

Oil-drilling:  artesian  method  em- 
ployed, 38-41;  tools  used,  41-47, 
See  also  Driller,  the 

Oil-factory,  floating,  252-53 

Oil-firefighters,  169 

Oil-geysers,  119 

Oil -rushes,  49-60 

Oil-springs,  as  evidence  of  oil,  17, 
29-30 

Oil-supplies,  future,  286-301 

"  Oil-tanker,"  the,  260-64 

Oil  Well  Supply  Company  of  Pitts- 
burgh, 39 

Oils,  refined,  methods  of  distribut- 
ing, 256-72 

Oklahoma,  boom,  5,  56,  288 

Olean, 288 

"  Oleo  ":  animal,  209,  212-14;  from 
coconut,  214-16 

Olympic,  the,  oil  bunkers  of,  277 

Ozokerite,  the  solid  form  of  oil,  3 

Pacific,  shark  fisheries,  240 

"  Packing  "  of  oil,  Chinese  prefer- 
ence for  "  packed  "  oil,  271-72 

Panama  Canal,  116 

Panama,  Isthmus  of,  oil-pipe  line 
of,  116-17 

Panama,  Republic  of,  concessions 
granted  by,  116 

Paraffin:  distillation  of,  11-12,  14, 
134,  145 ;  loss  on  the  market,  141  ; 
flash-pointof,  145-46 ;  medicaluse, 
146;  blendingof  highergrades,  205 

Paraffin  lamp,  supersession  of  the, 
140 


Paraffin  oils,  84,  124 

Paraffin  vaporizers,  279-80 

Paraffin  wax,  139,  148,  189-92,  296 

"  Paying  sands,"  65 

Peace  River  country,  21-23 

"  Pearline  "  oil,  191 

Pearson,  Messrs.  S.,  and  Son,  282 

Pearson,  Sir  Weetman.  See  Cow- 
dray,  Lord 

Pennsylvania:  oil  sources  of,  8,  54, 
126,  288;  drilling,  40;  price  of 
oil,  101;  Canadian  duty  on,  125- 
28 ;  natural  gas  derived  from,  195 

Pennsylvania  Rock-oil  Company, 
12-14 

Pentane,  144 

Per  kin  medal,  128 

Persia,  oil-supply,  7,  28-32 

Peru,  oil-fields  of,  36-37;  drilling,  41 

Petrol  or  gasolene:  distillation  of, 
*33.  !35.  139,  14°;  as  fuel,  141; 
the  retorting  stage,  183 ;  deposited 
from  natural  gas,  202-5;  density 
of,  292-93 

Petroleum:  use  of  the  term,  3; 
abundance  of,  4-7;  nature,  7-8; 
grading  of,  8-9;  depth  found  at, 
8-9;  constituents  of,  134-35; 
products  of,  143-51;  medicinal 
uses,  147 

Petroleum  asphalt,  160-62 

Petroleum  Centre,  14 

"  Petroleum  coke,"  139 

Petroleum  ether,  134-35 

Petroleum  spirit,  synthetic  substi- 
tutes for,  293-96 

Petrolia,  38,  125 

Petty,  Mr.,  213-14 

Philadelphia,  54,  129 

Pipe-line  system,  the,  56,  97-98, 
102-18:  scheme  of  Van  Syckle, 
103-5;  the  line  from  John  Ben- 
ninghoff  Farm,  105;  revolt  of  the 
teamsters,  105-7;  laying  of  a 

§ipe-line,  107-9;  energy  of  the 
tandard  Oil  Company,  109-10; 
State-owned  pipe-lines,  uo-n; 
difficulty  with  heavy  oils,  112-13; 
use  of  the  rifled  pipe-line,  113- 
14;  the  installation  at  Tuxpan, 
114-15;  the  line  across  Panama, 
116-17;  probable  extension  of  the 
system,  117-18 

Pitch  by  distillation,  3,  296 

Pitch  Lake,  Trinidad,  149-50,  153- 
59 

Pithole,  14 

Pithole  City,  54,  104 

Pittsburgh,  39;  use  of  natural  gas, 
195 


3o8         THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 


Plant,  the  Calif  ornian  rig,  40-41 

Playiair,  Lord,  n 

"  Poor  Man's  Light,"  140 

Porpoise,  the,  243;  fish-jaw-oil, 
248-49;  porpoise- hide,  249-50; 
method  of  catching,  249-50;  re- 
fining of  the  oil,  250-51 

Port  Harford,  80,  98 

Port  Richmond,  130-31 

Porta  Costa,  113 

Portrero  de  Llano  No.  4  well,  28, 
84-87,  178 

Prairie,  78 

Price  of  oil,  101 

Pumpherston  Oil  Company,  182; 
the  retort  used,  183-85;  installa- 
tion, 187 

"  Pumping,"  61-70 

Pumping-stations,dispositionof,io8 

Rabbits  killed  by  oil-gush,  79 
Radiators,  heating  by,  284 
Railway  car,  bulk,  265 
Railways,  adoption  of  oil  fuel  by, 

270-71,  280-83 
Raleigh,   Sir  Walter,   discovery  of 

Pitch  Lake,  153-55 
Ray  oil,  251 
Red  Men,  i 
Red  Rot,  14 
Red  Sea  coastline,  6,  32 
Refinery,  the:  method  of  gauging, 

etc.,  99-100;  cost  of  plant,  102; 

use  of  "  sumps,"  119-20;  cost  of 

equipment,    121-22;    distillation, 

122-23;     condensation,     123-24; 

classes    of    crude    oil,     124-25; 

"  skunk,"  125-30,  Californian  oils, 

130-32 

Reichenbach,  Baron,  145 
Reservoirs,  sunken,  96-97,  in 
Residuum,  138,  145-50 
Retorts  used  in  shale  distillation, 

182-85 

Rhigolene,  134-35 
Road-building,  use  of  asphalt,  149- 

50,  153-62 

Road-oil,  use,  159-60 
Road-tanker,  the,  265-69 
Rocca,     Tassey,     and     de     Roux, 

Messrs.,  215 

Rockefeller  brothers,  the,  15 
Rockies,  the,  absence  of  oil,  10,  198 
Rogers,  H.H.,  15 
Romani  district,  wells  of  the,  76 
Romans,    the,    method    of    road- 
making,  152 

Roumania:  oil  resources,  2,  6,  8,  25, 
38,  88-89,  3°i;  pipe-line  system 
in,  n-12 


Royal  Society,  the,  128 

Russia:  oil  resources,  6,  8,  n,  25, 
301;  drilling,  40;  drawing  oil  by 
compressed  air,  70;  pipe-line 
system,  no-u;  oil  fires  in,  174; 
British  interests  in,  271 ;  railways 
of,  use  of  oil,  280;  steppes  of, 
motor  work  on,  279 

Sahara,  oil  resources,  32 
Sand   :      preliminary    purification 
from,  119-20;  use  in  oil  fires,  167 
"  Sand  pumps,"  41 
San  Francisco,  118,  160 
San  Francisco  Bay,  112 
San  Fraterno,  tanker,  263-64 
San  Joaquin  Valley,  97-98 
San  Luis  Obispo,  97 
Saratoga,  78 
"  Scale,"  190 
Scotland:  shale  deposits,  5,  7;  shale 

industry  in,  180-93,  295 
Scottish   Mineral   Oil  Association, 

181-82 

Sea-bed,  oil  from  the,  u,  45-47 
Sea-elephant  oil,  245,  247 
Seafield,  187 

Seal-fishing:    methods    of   winning 
the  oil,   146,  245-46;  sun  treat- 
ment, 246;  cooking  process,  246; 
steam  process,  246-47;  value  of 
the  pelt,  247 
Sea-lion  oil,  245 
Seneca  oil,  i 
Shaffer  Farm,  105 
Shah,  the,  concessions  by,  28 
Shales:  oil  from,  179-93:   Scottish 
companies,  5,  7,  179-82,  294-95; 
process    of    extracting,     182-91; 
products  obtained,  191-93 
Shark  fisheries,  239-40 
Shield  to  control  a  gusher,  82 
"  Shooting  "  the  well,  65-69 
Shustar,  29 

Siberia,  oil  resources  of,  25 
"  Sight  "  box,  135 
"  Skimming,"  process  of,  291 
"  Skunk,"  125-31 
"Sludge"  acid,  137 
Smith,  William,  12 
Soap-mak'ng,  constituents  for,  215, 

221,236,238,244 
Soudan,   oil-supply,   6,   7;  cost  of 

coal  in  the,  37 
Sour  Lake,  78 
South  Pacific  railways,  oil-firing  on, 

160,  282 
Southall,  226 
Spain,  oil-supply,  6 
Sperm  oil,  146,  242-44,  247-49,  253 


INDEX 


309 


Sperm  whale,  the,  242-43 

Spermaceti,  245 

Spindletop  Field  fires,  166-67 

"  Spouter,"  the  term,  75 

"  Squip/'useof  a,  68 

Standard  Oil  Company:  conces- 
sions in  China,  7;  formation,  15, 
28-  531  participation  in  the 
Canadian  oil-boom,  55 ;  efficiency 
of  the,  92-96,  122,  261,  289;  use 
of  certificates,  100;  refining  plant, 
102;  pipe-lines  owned  by,  107, 
109-10;  and  the  Lima  oil,  126-27, 
129;  and  the  California  oils,  130- 
31;  use  of  the  tanker,  262-69; 
and  the  Eagle  Company,  269-71  ; 
tank  farms  maintained  by,  288; 
wealth  of  the,  299-300 

Steam,  use  in  oil-fires,  167-70 

Steam-engine  superseded  by  the 
oil-engine,  261-62 

Steamers,  bulk,  98,  259-64 

Stearic  acid,  148 

Stearin,  238,  245 

"  Stillman,"  the,  136 

Stills,  122-23 

Strikes,  some  famous  big,  58,  74-90 

Suez,  Gulf  of,  32 

Sulphur  oil,  124-31 

Sulphuretted  hydrogen,  125 

Summerland,  45-46 

"  Sumps,"  120 

Sussex:  natural  gas  found,  5;  oil, 
196;  iron  ores  of,  294-95 

Swan,Hunter,  and  WighamRichard- 
son,  Ltd.,  Messrs.,  263 

"  Sweating  "  of  paraffin  wax,  190 

Syckle,  Samuel  Van,  103-4 

"  Synclines,"  9 

Table,  oil  invasion  of  the,  208-22 

Tallow,  245 

Tamahua  River,  177 

Tampico,  84,  175,  270 

Tank,  the:  maintenance,  9394; 
standardization  of,  94-95;  tank- 
farms,  95-98 ;  sunken  reservoirs, 
96;  concrete  reservoirs,  97-98; 
tank-steamer,  the,  98;  cut-tanks, 
135-37;  tank-fires,  164-65  ;  tank- 
cars,  258-59  ;  the  road  tank 
waggon,  265-69 

Tank-farms,  96-98;  fires  on,  164-65, 
168-69;  migratory  character,  288 

Tank-steamer,  the,  98,  117,  288 

Tapping  and  drawing  the  oil,  61-73 

Tarbrax,  187 

Tar-springs,  Persian,  29-30 

Tar-stills,  148 

Tasmania,  oil-supply,  7 


"  Tasters,"  milk,  229 

Taxi-cab,  the,  278 

Teamsters,  the.  See  Animal  Trac- 
tion 

Tehuantepec  railway,  282 

Texas:  oil  resources,  5,  8,  55,  76-78; 
drilling,  45 ;  the  boom,  56-57,  89 ; 
storage,  no;  pipe-line  system, 
115;  bitumen  from,  159;  use  of 
road  oil,  160;  fires  in  the  oil- 
fields, 166-67 

Thames  Haven,  262 

"  Thief,"  the,  use  of,  99 

Thompson  and  Hunter,  Messrs., 
plant  invented  by,  36 

Thunderstorms,  danger  of  fire  from, 
167-68 

Tiera  Amarilla  field,  86-87 

Tiflis,  in 

Tin,  methods  of  mining,  n 

Titusville,  14-15,  39 

"  Toppings,"  291 

"  Torpedoing  "  the  well,  65-69 

Trans-Caucasian  railway,  no-n 

Transportation  by  land,  278 

Trinidad,  Pitch  Lake  of,  149-50; 
asphalt  from,  153-62 

Turpentine,  145;  substitutes  for, 
191 

Tuxpan,  84;  pipe-line  system,  114-15 

Uganda,  transport  in,  257 

Union  Oil  Company,  95;  storage 
facilities,  97;  pipe-lines  owned 
by,  115-17 

Union  Steamship  Company,  adop- 
tion of  oil  fuel,  277 

United  States:  oil  resources,  5,  78, 
286-87;  method  of  obtaining  the 
oil,  ii,  18-19,  58;  method  of 
"shooting"  the  well,  65-66; 
method  of  drawing  oil  by  com-  • 
pressed  air,  70 ;  big  gushers  of,  84 ; 
storage  facilities,  94-95;  pipe-line 
system  in,  106,  no,  114,  117; 
road-making  with  asphalt,  157- 
59;  loss  by  oil-fires,  163,  174, 
176;  oil  from  coals,  179;  syn- 
thetic specialities,  191 ;  use  of 
sulphate  of  ammonia,  192; 
amount  of  natural  gas-supply, 
196-97;  permission  of  term  "  but- 
terine,"  210;  coconut  oil  con- 
sumed, 222;  consumption  of 
margarine,  224;  whaling  fleets 
of,  242 ;  influence  of  the  Standard 
Oil  Company,  267-68,  300-301; 
British  interests,  270;  use  of  the 
motor,  279;  liquid  fuel  for  rail- 
ways of,  280-83;  domestic  con- 


3io         THE  OIL  CONQUEST  OF  THE  WORLD 


sumption  of  petrol,  291-92;  and 
production  of  "  benzole,"  294 
Urquhart,  Mr.,  device  of,  280 

Valves  to  control  gushers,  87 

Vancouver,  277 

Varnish,  191 

Vegetable  oils,  146 

VeraCruz,  oil  resources,  28, 174,  282 

Verein    Chemischer    Fabriken     of 

Mannheim,  131 
Virgins,  parable  of  the,  i 
Volcanic  districts  and  oil  deposits,io 

Wallsend-Howden  system,  264 

Walrus-hunting,  245-47 

War-ships,  necessity  of  oil  fuel  to, 
277-78 

Watch-oil,  Mr.  Nye's  discovery, 
248-51 

Water:  enemy  of  the  driller,  44, 
63-64,  289-90;  salt,  119;  use  in 
condensing  the  oil,  123;  useless- 
ness  in  oil-fires,  166-67;  in  the  Dos 
Bocas,  178;  transport  by,  259-64 


Water-divining,  32-34 
Waters-Pierce  Company,  28,  269 
Wax,  paraffin,  189-92 
Waxes  from  tar-stills,  148 
Wells,  sinking  of,  49-60;  proximity 

of,    59-6o;   superimposed   layers 

of  oil  in,  71 

Whaleback  oil-tanker,  the,  259-60 
Whale-blubber,     refining     process, 

243-45 

Whale-bone,  241-42 
Whaling     industry,     the,     240-45; 

whale-oil,  241-44 

White  Star  Line,  adoption  of  oil,  277 
Whiting  refineries,  129 
Wild  Cat  Hollow,  14 
Winter  sperm-oil,  244-45 
Woodlawn  Cemetery,  Titusville,  15- 

16 
Wyoming,  56 

Yellowstone  Park,  3-4;  geysers  of, 

178 
Young,   Mr.    James,    discovery  of 

11-12,  14,  145,  179,  295-96 


BILLING   AND   SONS,   LTD.,    PRINTERS,   GUILDFORD 


' 

6?6 

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IVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 

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